Short‐term changes in the structure of termite assemblages associated with slash‐and‐burn agriculture in Côte d'Ivoire

Termites are major decomposers in tropical regions and play critical roles in many soil‐related processes. Studies conducted in Asia and the Neotropics suggest that habitat modification can strongly affect termite assemblages, but data on termite communities from forests in Africa, especially West Africa, are scarce. Here, we measured the short‐term impact of slash‐and‐burn agriculture on termite assemblages in an agricultural region of central Côte d'Ivoire. We assessed termite diversity and relative abundance in four habitat types: secondary forest, cleared forest, burned forest, and crop fields. The secondary forest had higher species richness compared with the other habitats, but all habitat types had similar assemblage structures. Fungus‐growing termites were the most abundant feeding group in all habitats. Soil feeders were most abundant in secondary forest, intermediately abundant in cleared and burned forests, and almost entirely absent in crop fields. Wood‐feeding species showed clear responses to burning; their abundances decreased after fire. We conclude that slash‐and‐burn agriculture does not appear to severely erode the diversity of termite assemblages. This could be due to the dominance of ecologically versatile fungus growers or to the relatively long time between clearing and burning. However, forest clearing negatively affects soil feeders, with the Apicotermitinae most affected by canopy loss.     

Interpretation of the last‐glacial vegetation of eastern‐central Europe using modern analogues from southern Siberia

Aim Interpretation of fossil pollen assemblages may benefit greatly from comparisons with modern palynological and vegetation analogues. To interpret the full‐ and late‐glacial vegetation in eastern‐central Europe we compared fossil pollen assemblages from this region with modern pollen assemblages from various vegetation types in southern Siberia, which presumably include the closest modern analogues of the last‐glacial vegetation of central Europe. Location Czech and Slovak Republics (fossil pollen assemblages); Western Sayan Mountains, southern Siberia (modern pollen assemblages). Methods Eighty‐eight modern pollen spectra were sampled in 14 vegetation types of Siberian forest, tundra and steppe, and compared with the last‐glacial pollen spectra from seven central European localities using principal components analysis. Results Both full‐ and late‐glacial pollen spectra from the valleys of the Western Carpathians (altitudes 350–610 m) are similar to modern pollen spectra from southern Siberian taiga, hemiboreal forest and dwarf‐birch tundra. The full‐glacial and early late‐glacial pollen spectra from lowland river valleys in the Bohemian Massif (altitudes 185–190 m) also indicate the presence of patches of hemiboreal forest or taiga. Other late‐glacial pollen spectra from the Bohemian Massif suggest an open landscape with steppe or tundra or a mosaic of both, possibly with small patches of hemiboreal forest. Main conclusions Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that during the full glacial and late glacial, the mountain valleys of the north‐western Carpathians supported taiga or hemiboreal forest dominated by Larix, Pinus cembra, Pinus sylvestris and Picea, along with some steppic or tundra formations. Forests tended to be increasingly open or patchy towards the west (Moravian lowlands), gradually passing into the generally treeless landscape of Bohemia, with possible woodland patches in locally favourable sites.     

The distribution and status of the montane juniper woodlands of Oman

Abstract. The distribution, condition and reproductive status of Juniperus excelsa M. -Bieb. subsp. polycarpos (K.Koch) Takhtajan were determined and assessed in the Hajar mountains of northern Oman, Arabia. Juniper is restricted to the highest areas, viz the central massif of Jebel Akhdar and the outlying mountains of Jebel Qubal and Jebel Kawr, where it generally forms open woodlands.
On exposed slopes juniper is distributed from an altitude of 2100 m to the highest summit at 3009 m, with no upper tree line, while on well-shaded north-facing slopes juniper trees grow as low as 1375 m. Above 2300 m, juniper is the dominant woody species, while below this altitude it is often co-dominant with Olea europea L. The woodlands are generally in poor condition on exposed slopes below 2400 m, with high proportions of dead or dying trees and low proportions of reproductively active trees. Above 2400 m and in shaded sites, woodland condition is better, with markedly higher proportions of reproductively active trees on exposed slopes at these altitudes. A predictive model of woodland condition based on topographic variables is presented. Altitude, shade and habitat account for 30.8% of the variation in a tree condition index, with slope being unimportant.
The absence of juniper from lower and more outlying mountains is likely to have resulted from the alternation of pluvial and arid periods over the last 40,000 years. We speculate that the current dieback of juniper at lower altitudes is due to continuing climatic change. Anthropogenic factors do not appear to be seriously affecting the juniper woodlands at present.     

Assessing the origin of Neotropical mountain dung beetle assemblages (Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae): the comparative influence of vertical and horizontal colonization

Aims The fauna of mountains and their surrounding regions are likely to be influenced principally by two biological processes: horizontal colonization along similar altitudinal levels by elements originating from lineages inhabiting higher latitudes; and vertical colonization by lineages from the same latitude, but at lower altitudes. We examine whether the expected patterns derived from the latter process can be observed in mountain dung beetle assemblages. Specifically, we study the variation in species composition and richness with altitude in five regions spanning elevation gradients, analysing whether the altitudinal rates of change in the number of species and genera differ, and whether beta‐diversity scores for adjacent sites in each altitudinal gradient are different for species and genera. Location Eastern Cordillera of the Colombian Andes. Methods Field work was carried out in 1997–99 at 27 sites in five regions with elevation gradients, with 10–32 pitfall traps placed in each site. For each altitudinal level the numbers of species and genera were analysed with respect to altitude, and the slope of the linear regression between these variables was calculated. The slope of the curve of the altitude against the cumulative number of species and genera was also calculated for each altitudinal gradient to describe the compositional change between adjacent sites (beta diversity). Species and generic slopes were compared using analysis of covariance. The turnover of species along each altitudinal gradient was measured using presence/absence data and Cody's beta‐diversity index between adjacent pairs of sites. A cluster analysis was used to detect faunistically homogeneous groups of localities. Results Species richness always decreased with altitude, although the slopes did not differ significantly from zero. The number of genera also decreased with increasing altitude, but generally at a significantly slower rate than for species. Variation in the species beta‐diversity scores between altitudinal levels did not follow a homogeneous pattern in the different regions. Two main altitudinal groups of sites with a boundary c. 1500–1750 m a.s.l. can be detected with respect to faunistic similarity. Low‐ and mid‐altitude sites are inhabited by all of the genera (19) and 80% of all species collected. Eight genera and 61 species (c. 60% of the total) are unable to inhabit high‐altitude sites, and only 20 species appear to be exclusive to these high‐altitude environments (> 2000 m a.s.l.). Main conclusions The dominant processes explaining dung beetle composition in the high north‐eastern Andean mountains are probably those of vertical colonization. The limited role of horizontal colonization processes, or colonization from northern or southern lineages, could be a consequence of the isolation and recent geological origin of these mountains.     

Changes in tropical forest vegetation along an altitudinal gradient in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Tanzania

This study describes changes in woody vegetation in the Mwanihana forest, Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Tanzania, over an altitude range of 470–1700 m. Two methods, fixed‐ and variable‐area plots, are compared to elucidate altitudinal variation in tropical forest structure, diversity and community composition. Six 25 m × 100 m fixed area plots recorded a total of 2143 woody stems of ≥3 cm d.b.h. from 204 species. The 78 variable‐area plots recorded the nearest twenty trees of ≥20 cm d.b.h. to an objectively chosen point, giving a total of 1560 stems in 9.1 ha from 156 species. A linear trend of increasing stem density with altitude was seen for variable‐area plots. Species diversity is highest at high elevations. There was no clear zonation of elevational vegetation types. Restricted range taxa occur at all altitudes sampled. The study also revealed some methodological considerations. Bias in sample size and plot area can be tested by employing two sampling methods. Of the two methods used, fixed area plots are preferred as variable area plots are impractical in tangled understorey. Plot size must be controlled for in order to make reliable observations of diversity. Sampling along a continuous or near‐continuous altitudinal gradient with sufficient replication is also important.     

Pollen-based reconstructions of biome distributions for Australia, Southeast Asia and the Pacific (SEAPAC region) at 0, 6000 and 18,000 14C yr BP

Aim This paper documents reconstructions of the vegetation patterns in Australia, Southeast Asia and the Pacific (SEAPAC region) in the mid‐Holocene and at the last glacial maximum (LGM). Methods Vegetation patterns were reconstructed from pollen data using an objective biomization scheme based on plant functional types. The biomization scheme was first tested using 535 modern pollen samples from 377 sites, and then applied unchanged to fossil pollen samples dating to 6000 ± 500 or 18,000 ± 1000 ¹⁴C yr bp . Results 1. Tests using surface pollen sample sites showed that the biomization scheme is capable of reproducing the modern broad‐scale patterns of vegetation distribution. The north–south gradient in temperature, reflected in transitions from cool evergreen needleleaf forest in the extreme south through temperate rain forest or wet sclerophyll forest (WSFW) and into tropical forests, is well reconstructed. The transitions from xerophytic through sclerophyll woodlands and open forests to closed‐canopy forests, which reflect the gradient in plant available moisture from the continental interior towards the coast, are reconstructed with less geographical precision but nevertheless the broad‐scale pattern emerges. 2. Differences between the modern and mid‐Holocene vegetation patterns in mainland Australia are comparatively small and reflect changes in moisture availability rather than temperature. In south‐eastern Australia some sites show a shift towards more moisture‐stressed vegetation in the mid‐Holocene with xerophytic woods/scrub and temperate sclerophyll woodland and shrubland at sites characterized today by WSFW or warm‐temperate rain forest (WTRF). However, sites in the Snowy Mountains, on the Southern Tablelands and east of the Great Dividing Range have more moisture‐demanding vegetation in the mid‐Holocene than today. South‐western Australia was slightly drier than today. The single site in north‐western Australia also shows conditions drier than today in the mid‐Holocene. Changes in the tropics are also comparatively small, but the presence of WTRF and tropical deciduous broadleaf forest and woodland in the mid‐Holocene, in sites occupied today by cool‐temperate rain forest, indicate warmer conditions. 3. Expansion of xerophytic vegetation in the south and tropical deciduous broadleaf forest and woodland in the north indicate drier conditions across mainland Australia at the LGM. None of these changes are informative about the degree of cooling. However the evidence from the tropics, showing lowering of the treeline and forest belts, indicates that conditions were between 1 and 9 °C (depending on elevation) colder. The encroachment of tropical deciduous broadleaf forest and woodland into lowland evergreen broadleaf forest implies greater aridity. Main conclusions This study provides the first continental‐scale reconstruction of mid‐Holocene and LGM vegetation patterns from Australia, Southeast Asia and the Pacific (SEAPAC region) using an objective biomization scheme. These data will provide a benchmark for evaluation of palaeoclimate simulations within the framework of the Palaeoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project.     

Altitudinal distribution and diversity of insects in miombo woodlands in Inhamacari,Manica Province,central Mozambique

To evaluate the role of altitude on distribution pattern and diversity of entomofauna on miombo woodlands, four altitudes (850, 1,000, 1,250 and 1,400 m) were selected in a characteristic mountainous forest of Inhamacari in Mozambique in July 2015. In each sampling altitude, a linear transect with 16 yellow pan traps spaced 2 m apart was established for insect capture. Capture results allowed assessment of insect distribution by determination of insect abundance and relative frequency. Insect diversity estimates were determined by Shannon–Wiener and Simpson indices. Altitude similarity was assessed by the Jaccard coefficient. The chi-square test () was used to compare insect abundance and distribution along the altitudinal gradient. Altitude significantly affected insect abundance, relative frequency and distribution, with a nonlinear decrease with increasing altitude. Families Formicidae (Hymenoptera) and Cecidomyiidae (Diptera) were most dominant. Highest diversity and more families confined to unique altitudinal positions were found at 1,250 m while the lowest diversity was observed at 1,000 m.a.s.l. Among the altitudes, greater similarity was found between 1,000 and 1,400 m. In conclusion, altitude had a significant effect on insect family's distribution. However, further research is recommended in order to understand effect of vegetation composition and structure on insect diversity at different altitudes.     

长白山北坡不同海拔及干扰程度下访花食蚜蝇群落的差异

本研究采用垂直面取样法,对中国长白山北坡不同海拔及干扰程度下访花食蚜蝇群落的物种组成、多度、丰富度及多样性进行了调查研究。我们选择了不同垂直带的两个样地,分别位于800~1 100 m和1 750 ~2 150 m;每个样地选取3种生境类型,每一生境类型采样面积为20 m×20 m。252组调查数据表明,共采到访花食蚜蝇42种2 540个体。不同海拔生境访花食蚜蝇的组成、多度、丰富度及多样性的差异分析结果表明: 低海拔样地内不同生境访花食蚜蝇的群落相似性高于高海拔样地;低海拔样地访花食蚜蝇的多度高于高海拔样地,而物种丰富度低于高海拔样地;不同生境类型访花食蚜蝇多样性指数存在差异,但高海拔样地与低海拔样地多样性差异不显著;过渡林生境（岳桦林带）与次生林生境（针阔混交林带Ⅱ）中访花食蚜蝇的多样性较高。保护珍稀植物物种的人工植物花园访花食蚜蝇多样性仅次于过渡林生境（岳桦林带）与次生林生境（针阔混交林带Ⅱ）,保护作用显著。     

Altitudinal variation of dung beetle (Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) assemblages in the Colombian Andes

Aim We describe the changes in species richness, rarity and composition with altitude, and explore whether the differences in Scarabaeinae dung beetle composition along five altitudinal transects of the same mountain range are related to altitude or if there are interregional differences in these altitudinal gradients. Location Field work was carried out on the eastern slope of the eastern Cordillera, Colombian Andes, between Tamá Peak to the north, in the Tamá National Park (07°23′ N, 72°23′ W) and the San Miguel River (00°28′ N, 77°17′ W) to the south. Methods Sampling was carried out between February 1997 and November 1999 in five regions spanning elevation gradients. In each gradient, six sites were chosen at 250 m intervals between 1000 and 2250 m a.s.l. Results We found a curvilinear relationship between altitude and mean species richness, with a peak in richness at middle elevations. However, the diversity of dung beetle assemblages does not seem to be related to the interregional differences in environmental conditions. The number of geographically restricted species is negatively and significantly related to altitude, with geographically restricted species more frequent at low altitude sites. Ordination delimited the two main groups according to altitude: one with all the highest sites (1750–2250 m a.s.l.) and a second group with the remaining sites (< 1750 m a.s.l.). Analysis of species co‐occurrence shows that these dung beetle assemblages seem to be spatially structured when all sites have the same probability of being chosen. In contrast, the spatial structure of species assemblages seems to be random when the probability of choosing any site is proportional to its altitude. Main conclusions The altitude of sites is the main factor that influences the diversity of these dung beetle assemblages. The peak in species richness at middle elevations, the higher number of geographically restricted species at lower altitudinal levels, and the compositional differences along these mountain gradients seem to result from the mixing at these altitudes of dung beetle assemblages that have different environmental adaptations and, probably, different origins. The relevance of altitude in these assemblages is related to the limited role of these Neotropical high altitude environments as centres of refuge and vicariance for a monophyletic group of warm‐adapted species, for which the vertical colonization of these high mountain environments by lineages distributed at lower altitudes would have been very difficult.     

Spatial gradients in species diversity of microscopic animals: the case of bdelloid rotifers at high altitude

Aim Organisms smaller than 2 mm appear not to follow the spatial patterns in richness and diversity commonly observed in macroscopic organisms. We describe spatial patterns in species diversity in a group of microscopic organisms, bdelloid rotifers, living in moss and lichen patches, in order to test the hypotheses of no relationship between species richness and composition and spatial gradients, suggested by previously published patterns in microscopic organisms. Location Moss and lichen patches as habitats for bdelloids, on high‐elevation peaks at altitudes between 2984 and 4527 m a.s.l. across the Italian, French and Swiss Alps, with distances among sample sites ranging from 1 m to 420 km, in comparison with lower‐elevation samples at altitudes from 850 to 1810 m a.s.l. Methods We sampled species assemblages of bdelloid rotifers living in isolated moss and lichen patches in 47 sites. We described the observed α, β and γ diversities; the heterogeneity of species assemblages; and the estimated number of species (incidence‐based coverage estimator). Patterns in species distribution were analysed at three different levels: (1) habitat, comparing species richness on moss and lichen substrates, testing differences in α diversity and heterogeneity (anova ), species composition (analysis of similarities test), and γ diversity (rarefaction curves); (2) altitude, comparing the observed richness with previously published data from locations well below 2000 m; and (3) distances between sites, correlating the matrix of Jaccard dissimilarities and the matrix of geographical distances with a Mantel test. Results Both species richness and species composition of bdelloid rotifers differed significantly between mosses and lichens at high elevations, but no difference was found in the heterogeneity of species assemblages. Alpha diversity was significantly lower at high‐elevation than at low‐elevation sites, but the estimated number of species was not reduced when compared with sites at low elevations. Geographical distance between sites had no effect on species composition in either mosses or lichens. The distribution of species was highly heterogeneous, with a low similarity among assemblages. Main conclusions As expected, bdelloids appear to occupy habitats selectively. The altitudinal gradient in species richness for bdelloid rotifers is limited to a decrease in α diversity only; such a decrease is not caused by a lower number of species (low γ diversity) being able to tolerate harsh conditions, and high‐altitude species are not a subset of species living at lower elevations. The observed values of α, β and γ diversity at high altitudes in the Alps are compatible with the scenario of a very low number of available propagules because of the low density of patches of favourable habitat. Our results suggest that the geographical distribution of animals, and therefore biodiversity patterns, may be strongly influenced by animal size, as small organisms such as bdelloids appear to show spatial patterns that differ from those known in larger animals. Differences in body size should be taken into account carefully in future studies of biodiversity patterns.     

Elevational gradients of species diversity, breeding system and floral traits of orchid species on Réunion Island

Aim This research investigates changes in orchid species composition and diversity, plant breeding system and floral traits along an elevational gradient spanning 2300 m (200–2500 m). Location The study was conducted on Réunion Island (Mascarene Islands, Indian Ocean). Methods Data on the distribution of 135 orchid species from 35 genera were gathered from 121 localities situated between 200 and 2500 m a.s.l. For each locality, 500‐m transects were walked and each orchid species was recorded. Measures of species diversity (species richness, a modified Shannon diversity index and the modified Shannon equitability index) were related to altitude using ordinary least‐squares regression. Species turnover and elevational gradients in species composition were determined by: (1) relating scores of detrended correspondence analysis to altitude using ordinary least‐squares regression, and (2) relating Sørensen similarity indices to differences in altitude using Mantel tests. Finally, the average proportion of species displaying similar floral traits or showing the same breeding system were compared among altitudinal zones. Results Species richness per transect ranged from 1 to 36 species (mean 14.3) and decreased significantly with increasing altitude. Similarly, species evenness decreased significantly with increasing altitude. Around 50% of all orchid species were rare (occurred in fewer than 5% of all localities), and only a few occurred in more than 50% of all localities. Orchid species composition changed continuously with altitude, indicating turnover of species with increasing altitude. Analogously, orchid breeding systems and floral traits also changed with altitude. Relatively more auto‐pollinating species were found at high altitudes compared with mid‐ and low‐altitude sites where animal‐pollinated species were most abundant. Species characterized by a cleistogamous pollination system were found almost exclusively in high‐altitude sites, whereas the proportion of species displaying floral traits related to pollination by long‐tongued moths (sphinx) and flies sharply decreased with increasing altitude. Main conclusions Environmental conditions associated with altitude exert a large influence on orchid species composition and the distribution of orchid breeding systems. Our results revealed a high proportion of auto‐pollinating species, and confirm earlier findings that auto‐pollinating species are more frequent in high‐altitude sites.     

Foliar freezing resistance of Australian alpine plants over the growing season

We assessed the freezing resistance of leaves ex situ of 25 Australian alpine plant species. We compared the freezing resistance of forb, graminoid and shrub species from three alpine summits of different altitudes; from a low altitude site just above treeline, to a fully alpine tundra site. Foliar freezing resistance (LT₅₀) in spring varied from ?5.9°C to ?18.7°C and standardized LT₅₀ values within species were significantly related to site altitude. Additionally, when comparing all the species in the study, freezing resistance was significantly related to site; the LT₅₀ of samples from a low‐altitude summit (1696 m) were significantly lower than those of samples from mid‐ (1805 m) and high‐altitude (1860 m) summits. The LT₅₀ of juvenile foliage did not differ significantly from that of adult foliage. Shrubs were highly resistant to freezing. At the highest summit, we examined the course of seasonal freezing resistance from early summer to early autumn across three alpine plant communities that differed in the time of natural snowmelt; from sheltered (snowpatch) to exposed (open heath). No differences in freezing resistance over the growing season were detected for exposed or sheltered communities and there were no consistent trends indicating frost hardening over the growing season. Overall, the common Australian alpine species we investigated appear well adapted to freezing conditions throughout the snow‐free growing season. We have no evidence to suggest that freezing temperatures soon after snowmelt in spring are especially damaging to the alpine plants at these summits.     

Are landscape attributes a useful shortcut for classifying vegetation in the tropics? A case study of La Amistad International Park

Effective vegetation classification schemes identify the processes determining species assemblages and support the management of protected areas. They can also provide a framework for ecological research. In the tropics, elevation‐based classifications dominate over alternatives such as river catchments. Given the existence of floristic data for many localities, we ask how useful floristic data are for developing classification schemes in species‐rich tropical landscapes and whether floristic data provide support for classification by river catchment. We analyzed the distribution of vascular plant species within 141 plots across an elevation gradient of 130 to 3200 m asl within La Amistad National Park. We tested the hypothesis that river catchment, combined with elevation, explains much of the variation in species composition. We found that annual mean temperature, elevation, and river catchment variables best explained the variation within local species communities. However, only plots in high‐elevation oak forest and Páramo were distinct from those in low‐ and mid‐elevation zones. Beta diversity did not significantly differ in plots grouped by elevation zones, except for low‐elevation forest, although it did differ between river catchments. None of the analyses identified discrete vegetation assemblages within mid‐elevation (700–2600 m asl) plots. Our analysis supports the hypothesis that river catchment can be an alternative means for classifying tropical forest assemblages in conservation settings.     

Contrasting patterns in local and zonal family richness of stream invertebrates along an Andean altitudinal gradient

1. Describing and understanding patterns in biological diversity along major geographical gradients is an important topic in ecology. Samples collected from a large number of physically and chemically comparable stream sites along a 4000 m gradient of altitude in the Andes of Ecuador served to characterise patterns of family richness of aquatic macroinvertebrates at the scale of the stream site (local) and at that of discrete altitudinal zones. 2. Both mean local and zonal family richness decreased by about 50% from sea level to 4000 m a.s.l. Local richness declined linearly, while zonal richness remained constant from sea level up to a threshold altitude of about 1800 m, whereafter it decreased. 3. From sea level to 1800 m few families were lost from zonal richness and few were gained. From 1800 to 3800 m the decrease in the number of families was accounted for by a loss of families present in lowland streams, with few new families gained. Hence, there was relatively little turnover of families along the entire gradient. 4. The diverging pattern of local and zonal richness was caused by sporadically occurring families inflating zonal richness at mid‐altitudes. If the sporadic families were represented by the same species found commonly in the lowlands, then the mid‐altitudinal zonal richness would be maintained by a ‘rescue effect’. More probably, however, the sporadically occurring families found at mid‐altitudes are each represented by new species replacing each other along the gradient, the families progressively diminishing in species richness and occurrence as the overall temperature tolerance of the family is approached. 5. This study demonstrates that spatial scale affects altitudinal patterns in the taxonomic richness of stream invertebrates. It also showed that family‐level identification can facilitate interpretation of sources and sinks of biodiversity along geographic gradients.     

Nectar-feeding bird and bat niches in two worlds: pantropical comparisons of vertebrate pollination systems

Aim We review several aspects of the structure of regional and local assemblages of nectar‐feeding birds and bats and their relationships with food plants to determine the extent to which evolutionary convergence has or has not occurred in the New and Old World tropics. Location Our review is pantropical in extent and also includes the subtropics of South Africa and eastern Australia. Within the tropics, it deals mostly with lowland forest habitats. Methods An extensive literature review was conducted to compile data bases on the regional and local species richness of nectar‐feeding birds and bats, pollinator sizes, morphology, and diets. Coefficients of variation (CVs) were used to quantify the morphospace occupied by the various families of pollinators. The extent to which plants have become evolutionarily specialized for vertebrate pollination was explored using several criteria: number and diversity of growth forms of plant families providing food for all the considered pollinator families; the most common flower morphologies visited by all the considered pollinator families; and the number of plant families that contain genera with both bird‐ and bat‐specialized species. Results Vertebrate pollinator assemblages in the New World tropics differ from those in the Old World in terms of their greater species richness, the greater morphological diversity of their most specialized taxa, and the greater degree of taxonomic and ecological diversity and morphological specialization of their food plants. Within the Old World tropics, Africa contains more specialized nectar‐feeding birds than Asia and Australasia; Old World nectar‐feeding bats are everywhere less specialized than their New World counterparts. Main conclusions We propose that two factors – phylogenetic history and spatio‐temporal predictability (STP) of flower resources – largely account for hemispheric and regional differences in the structure of vertebrate pollinator assemblages. Greater resource diversity and resource STP in the New World have favoured the radiation of small, hovering nectar‐feeding birds and bats into a variety of relatively specialized feeding niches. In contrast, reduced resource diversity and STP in aseasonal parts of Asia as well as in Australasia have favoured the evolution of larger, non‐hovering birds and bats with relatively generalized feeding niches. Tropical Africa more closely resembles the Neotropics than Southeast Asia and Australasia in terms of resource STP and in the niche structure of its nectar‐feeding birds but not its flower‐visiting bats.     

Spatial variation and biogeography of sand forest avian assemblages in South Africa

Aim To examine biogeographical affiliations, habitat‐associated heterogeneity and endemism of avian assemblages in sand forest patches and the savanna‐like mixed woodland matrix. Location Two reserves in the Maputaland Centre of Endemism (MC) on the southern Mozambique Coastal Plain of northern KwaZulu‐Natal, South Africa. Methods Replicated surveys were undertaken in each of the two habitat types in each reserve, providing species abundance data over a full year. Vegetation structure at each of the survey sites was also quantified. Differences between the bird assemblages and the extent to which vegetation structure explained these differences were assessed using multi‐variate techniques. Biogeographical comparisons were based on species presence/absence data and clustering techniques. Results Bird assemblages differed significantly between habitats both within a given reserve and between reserves, and also between reserves for a given habitat. Differences in vegetation structure contributed substantially to differences between the avian assemblages. Of the four species endemic to the MC, three (Neergaard’s sunbird, Rudd’s apalis, and Woodward’s batis) were consistently present in sand forest. The fourth (pink‐throated twinspot) preferred mixed woodland. None of these endemic species was classed as rare. In the biogeographical analysis, both the sand forest and the mixed woodland bird assemblages were most similar to bird assemblages found in the forest biome or the Afromontane forest biome, depending on the biome classification used. Main conclusions The close affinities of sand forest and mixed woodland assemblages to those of the forest biome are most likely due to similarities in vegetation structure of these forests. Bird assemblages differ between the sand forest and mixed woodland habitats both within a given reserve and between reserves, and also between reserves for a given habitat. These differences extend to species endemic to the MC. Thus, conservation of sand forest habitat in a variety of areas is necessary to ensure the long‐term persistence of the biota.     

Community structure of ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) along an altitudinal gradient on Mt. Sobaeksan,Korea

We conducted this study to determine the diversity patterns, community structures, and seasonality of ground beetle assemblages along an altitudinal gradient (437–1420 m) on Mt. Sobaeksan, Korea. Ground beetles were collected by pitfall traps installed along an altitudinal gradient (437, 757, 1100, and 1420 m). A total of 32 species belonging to seven subfamilies were identified from 3259 collected ground beetles. The diversity pattern of the ground beetle assemblage according to altitude was neither monotonic decreased nor hump-shaped. However, subfamily assemblages and wing form diversity patterns differed according to altitude and may be correlated with altitude or some other environmental variables. The dominant species were Synuchus cycloderus (29.4%) and Eucarabus sternbergi sobaeksanensis (15.4%) and their seasonal activities according to altitude were similar. According to non-metric multidimensional scaling, ground beetles and altitudes could be divided into two distinct groups: a low altitude group (437–757 m) and a high altitude group (1100–1420 m). Some species were particularly abundant at high altitudes, such as Aulonocarabus koreanus kwonileeique and Poecilus nitidicollis, while others were highly abundant at low altitudes, such as Pterostichus audax, Pterostichus ishikawai, and Synuchus species.     

Zonal transition of evergreen,deciduous, and coniferous forests along the altitudinal gradient on a humid subtropical mountain,Mt. Emei,Sichuan, China

Altitudinal zonation of evergreen, deciduous and coniferous forests on Mt. Emei (3099 m asl, 29°34.5' N, 103°21.5' E), Sichuan, China was studied to understand the transition of vegetation zonation from tropical to temperate mountains in humid Asia. On the basis of quantitative data on floristic composition and community structure sampled at ten plots selected in different altitudes on the eastern slope of the mountain, forest zonation and the inter-relationships among different life-forms of trees in each zonal forest community were studied quantitatively. Three forest zones were identified physiognomically along the altitudinal gradient, viz. (i) the evergreen broad-leaved forest zone (660–1500 m asl), (ii) the mixed forest zone (1500–2500 m asl), and (iii) the coniferous forest zone (2500–3099 m asl). Great compositional changes were observed along elevation, and the zonal forest communities were characterized by their dominants and floristic composition. Maximum tree height decreased from 33 m at lower middle altitude (965 m asl) to 13 m near the summit (2945 m asl). There was no apparent deciduous forest zone along the altitudinal gradient, but true mixed forests of three life-forms (evergreen, deciduous, and coniferous) were formed around 2000–2500 m asl. Patches of deciduous forest were found in a lower part of the mixed forest zone, particularly on scree slopes, between 1450 m and 1900 m asl. These patches were dominated by the Tertiary relic deciduous trees, such as Davidia involucrata, Tetracentron sinense, and Cercidiphyllum japonicum var. sinense. High species diversity in the mixed forest zone resulted from the overlapping of different life-forms at middle altitudes, which is partly due to wider variety of temperature-altitude correlations. A comparison of the altitudinal zonation with the other east Asian mountain vegetation clarified that Mt. Emei is located exactly at the ecotone between tropical and temperate zonation types in eastern Asia.     

Comparison of leaf litter ant communities in woodlands, lowland forests and montane forests of north-eastern Tanzania

Ants were extracted in Winkler bags from sifted leaf litter sampled in arange of forest and woodland types in and around Mkomazi Game Reserve innorth-eastern Tanzania, including the Eastern Arc Mountains of South Pare andWest Usambara. A total of 87 ant species were recorded, of which 32.2% were onlyrecorded from montane forests (1400–1850 m altitude), 6.9%only from lowland forest (540–810 m), 19.5% only fromwoodland (300–1080 m), and 16.1% in all three forest types.Of the 28 species recorded only from montane forests, 12 species were only foundin the Mkomazi forests, four only in the Pares and seven species only in theUsambaras. Sites of similar altitude grouped together in a cluster analysis, andspecies richness decreased with an increase in altitude. The lowland forest andclosed woodland sites did not form distinct communities. To ensure preservationof ant species, forests from a full range of altitudes need to be conserved.This study confirms the status of the West Usambara forests as having a highlyendemic biota, and the critical need to adequately conserve the remainingvestiges of montane forest within Mkomazi Game Reserve.     

Decline in hunter offtake of blue duikers in Bioko Island,Equatorial Guinea

The blue duiker (Philantomba monticola) is an abundant and widely distributed ungulate in continental sub‐Saharan Africa. High hunting pressure throughout its range may be particularly threatening to the persistence of island populations of the species. In this study, we assessed offtake of blue duikers in Pico Basilé, Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. We recorded the number of animals shot or snared by 46 commercial hunters over a 33‐month period, and the location (elevation) of each animal hunted. From this, we estimated catch per hunter (C_H), catch per hunting day (C_D) and catch per unit effort (CPUE). The number of duikers shot or snared across the study period, significantly declined within the mid‐altitude range (901–1500 m). There were no significant drops in C_H or CPUE at low or high altitudes for snared animals. The ratio of immature‐to‐adult animals hunted increased significantly over time within the mid‐altitude range. We suggest that these trends in offtake, especially in the more heavily hunted mid‐altitudes of the study area, indicate a decline in the population within this range. If this situation is widespread throughout the island, it is likely that unregulated bushmeat hunting will have devastating consequences to the biodiversity of Bioko Island, particularly for heavily hunted species that are naturally less abundant.