Population and Conservation Genetics in an Endangered Lemur, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Indri indri</Emphasis>, Across Three Forest Reserves in Madagascar

Population decline and fragmentation often lead to reduced genetic diversity and population differentiation. Habitat destruction throughout Madagascar has caused population decline and extinction of many endemic species. Lemur populations, including those of the largest extant lemur, Indri indri, have been fragmented into remaining forest patches. We assessed the level of genetic diversity in indri populations in three protected reserves by genotyping a total of 43 individuals at 17 microsatellite loci. Genetic diversity in terms of heterozygosity was high in all three reserves, with no differences between reserves. Population structure and F _ST analyses revealed Analamazaotra Forest Station and the Torotorofotsy Conservation Area, which are separated by ca. 18 km to be genetically differentiated from each other with some admixture. Betampona Strict Nature Reserve, which is separated from the other reserves by ca. 130 km, exhibited clear population genetic differentiation, with no signs of admixture with the other reserves. Our genetic diversity estimates are similar to those for other Indridae in similar habitats and may reflect past rather than current population processes, given that populations have declined recently. Our results suggest that Betampona may be genetically isolated and that it is important to maintain gene flow between remaining populations to prevent loss of genetic diversity for the future conservation of Indri indri.     

Genetic assessment of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Abies koreana</Emphasis> (Pinaceae), the endangered Korean fir,and conservation implications

To establish a management plan for endangered and rare species, genetic assessment must first be conducted. The genetic characteristics of plant species are affected by demographic history, reproductive strategy, and distributional range as well as anthropological effects. Abies koreana E. H. Wilson (Pinaceae), Korean fir, is endemic to Korea and found only in sub-alpine areas of the southern Korean Peninsula and Jejudo Island. This species has been designated as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature due to a continuous decline in its range and population fragmentation. We genotyped 176 individuals from seven natural populations and two afforested populations on the Korean Peninsula using 19 microsatellite loci. STRUCTURE analysis revealed two genetic clusters in natural populations (F _st  = 0.040 and R _st  = 0.040) despite low differentiation. We did not detect a significant reduction in genetic diversity or the signature of a genetic bottleneck despite population fragmentation and small population size. We deduced that this species exhibits a metapopulation structure, with the population on Jirisan Mountain acting as a source of genetic diversity for other local small populations on the Korean Peninsula, through contemporary asymmetric gene flow. However, the majority of afforested individuals on the Korean Peninsula originated from a different gene cluster. Thus, we recommend a conservation strategy that maintains two genetically unique clusters.     

Genetic diversity from pre-bottleneck to recovery in two sympatric pinniped species in the Northwest Atlantic

Conservation successes of the past several decades provide natural settings to study post-bottleneck evolutionary processes in species undergoing recovery. Here, we study the impact of demographic change on genetic diversity in parallel natural experiments of historical decline and subsequent recovery in two sympatric pinniped species in the Northwest Atlantic, the gray seal (Halichoerus grypus atlantica) and harbor seal (Phoca vitulina concolor). We compare genetic diversity at the mitochondrial control region today to diversity in archaeological specimens, which represent the populations prior to the regional bounties of the late 1800s to mid-1900s that drastically reduced population sizes and led to local extirpations. We further assess genetic diversity throughout recovery, using biological collections from ongoing long-term studies of both species. Overall, the genetic data are consistent with the historical presence of large, genetically diverse populations of pinnipeds prior to human exploitation, and suggest that gray seals were more dramatically impacted by historical bottlenecks than harbor seals in the Northwest Atlantic. Current mitochondrial diversity in both species is relatively high, and we observe little change over the past several decades during a period of roughly parallel rapid population increases. However, there remain large differences in haplotype composition between pinniped populations of pre-exploitation and today, a lasting genetic signature of historical exploitation that is likely to persist into the future.     

Admixture promotes genetic variation in bottlenecked moose populations in eastern Poland

Human activity has led to severe bottlenecks in many wildlife species in the recent past. This usually increases the strength of genetic drift, leading to loss of genetic variation. Gene flow may however counteract the genetic consequences of small population size. Using 11 of 38 tested microsatellite loci and five moose populations in eastern Poland, we investigated the effects of two phenomena: bottlenecks that occurred in the nineteenth century and the first half of twentieth century, and admixture after moose populations expanded demographically and spatially in eastern Poland after the Second World War. The statistical tests indicated a recent bottleneck in all the studied samples with respect to H _E and low Garza–Williamson index values. The Biebrza population, which consists of autochthonous moose representing a branch of the Central Europe mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) clade and immigrants belonging to the Ural clade, is one of the most variable populations of this species. AMOVA, PCA, and STRUCTURE analyses all revealed significant population structuring, with most probable existence of K?=?2 genetically distinct clusters that exhibited a relatively high level of admixture. Analysis of recent dispersal rates demonstrated that population from the Biebrza Valley may supply individuals to the other four studied moose populations. We also found female-biased sex ratio in nonharvested moose populations inhabiting eastern Poland.     

High genetic diversity and differentiation of an extremely narrowly distributed and critically endangered decaploid rose (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rosa praelucens</Emphasis>): implications for its conservation

Rosa praelucens is a critically endangered decaploid alpine rose with an extremely narrow geographic distribution in Northwestern Yunnan, China. We sampled almost all the extant individuals (527 individuals in 31 natural locations and 56 individuals preserved in three local living collections) to assess the genetic variation and to probe the genetic connectivity among the individuals and populations based on three cpDNA intergenic spacers and six fluorescent amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. The morphological traits from seven populations were also measured. R. praelucens exhibited high levels of morphological variation, genetic diversity, and differentiation. The extant individuals were clustered into eight groups in neighbor-net networks, and subsequent Bayesian analysis assigned them into three larger gene pools, both in accordance with their morphological traits, especially flower color. The living collections embraced two private cpDNA haplotypes and included three out of the species’ total eight AFLP genotypes. Rhizome clonal growth, decaploid, and mixed breeding system may largely contribute to high genetic diversity and differentiation in R. praelucens. We concluded that the endangered status of R. praelucens may mainly be due to habitat fragmentation and loss and inherent reproductive difficulties, rather than low genetic diversity. The populations contributing higher cpDNA genetic diversity, representing more AFLP genotypes, and encompassing private cpDNA haplotypes should be given conservation priority by creating plant-micro reserves. The living collections should also be targeted for further ex situ conservation, population recovery, and reintroduction of R. praelucens plants.     

Lost but not forgotten: MHC genotypes predict overwinter survival despite depauperate MHC diversity in a declining frog

The amphibian disease chytridiomycosis, caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), has contributed to the decline of Chiricahua leopard frogs (Rana chiricahuensis), a federally threatened species native to the Southwestern United States. We characterized immunogenetic variability in R. chiricahuensis by sequencing an expressed Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) class IIβ gene across 13 natural populations in Arizona, USA, as well as 283 individuals that were captive reared from two egg masses. We recovered a total of five class IIβ MHC alleles compared to 84 alleles previously characterized in eight natural populations of the Arizona congener R. yavapaiensis, demonstrating reduced MHC diversity in R. chiricahuensis. One allele was fixed in five populations but none of the R. chiricahuensis alleles were closely related to R. yavapaiensis allele Q, which is significantly associated with chytridiomycosis resistance in laboratory trials. Nine of 13 R. chiricahuensis population localities were Bd positive, and bearing allele RachDRB*04 was the best genetic predictor of an individual being infected with Bd. A total of three class IIβ alleles were recovered from captive reared individuals, which were released to two natural population localities followed by recapture surveys to assess MHC-based survival over winter, the time when chytridiomycosis outbreaks are most severe. At one site, all released animals were fixed for a single allele and MHC-based survival could not be assessed. At the second site, fewer than half of the released but all of the recaptured individuals were homozygous for RachDRB*05, indicating that MHC genotype is important in determining Bd survival under natural field conditions. We conclude that the limited MHC variation in R. chiricahuensis is likely the consequence rather than the cause of natural selection favoring alleles that promote survival in the face of Bd. Our study highlights that preserving even low levels of functional genetic variation may be essential for population persistence, and that local disease adaptation may present as a reduction in genetic diversity. These finding also suggest that for populations that have declined due to a specific infectious pathogen, MHC-based genetically-informed reintroduction approaches may enhance species recovery efforts.     

Consequences for genetic diversity and population performance of introducing continental red deer into the northern distribution range

For several centuries, game management has involved translocations of non-native individuals of many species to reinforce local native populations. However, there are few quantitative studies of potentially negative effects on population viability as expected when taxa with different local adaptations hybridise. The European red deer has been subject to particularly many translocations. Around 1900, a total of 17 red deer of Hungarian (Cervus elaphus hippelaphus) and German (C. e. germanicus) origin were introduced onto the island of Otterøya in Norway where few native red deer (C. e. atlanticus) remained (n ~ 13). To assess interbreeding, the present stock on Otterøya and the indigenous Norwegian and Hungarian populations were characterised in 14 microsatellite loci and in the control region of mtDNA. An intermediate level of genetic variation in the Otterøya population and the presence of population specific alleles from both the indigenous Norwegian and the Hungarian population demonstrate that the introduced red deer interbred with the native. Even distributions of one indigenous and one non-indigenous mtDNA haplotype in the Otterøya population and two point estimates of admixture indicate similar genetic contributions from the two parental populations into the hybrid stock. Low numbers of migrants identified with Bayesian assignment tests demonstrate low recent gene flow from Otterøya into the Norwegian mainland population. The Otterøya hybrid stock has grown vastly in numbers during recent decades, suggesting a high population viability. We observed that the body mass of red deer on Otterøya was similar or greater than in adjacent indigenous Norwegian stocks, indicating that population performance has not been reduced in the hybrid stock and that gene flow probably has not had any negative effects.     

The effects of introduced vespid wasps (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Vespula germanica</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">V. vulgaris</Emphasis>) on threatened native butterfly (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Oreixenica ptunarra</Emphasis>) populations in Tasmania

Introduced vespid wasps (Vespula germanica and V. vulgaris) are highly efficient predators of native invertebrates. They have the potential to reduce populations of threatened species and change ecosystem dynamics, yet their impact is largely unknown in Australia. The introduction of vespid wasps has coincided with a decline in numbers of threatened Ptunarra brown butterflies (Oreixenica ptunarra) in Tasmania, Australia. The Ptunarra brown butterfly is endemic to Tasmania, where its habitat has been fragmented by clearance for agriculture and forestry. Local extinctions of the species were previously thought to be principally due to its inability to fly the long distances between habitat patches in this disjointed landscape. We investigate the importance of the new threat of vespid wasp predation in the decline of O. ptunarra in the highland grasslands of northwest Tasmania. Numbers of O. ptunarra analysed over a period of 15 years dramatically declined after the arrival of vespid wasps. Wasp control was trialled to determine whether it affected butterfly numbers. Current control methods decreased wasp numbers considerably, resulting in a small increase in butterfly numbers, indicating that wasp predation is keeping O. ptunarra at low densities. Without ongoing conservation measures, it is likely that butterfly numbers will stay low, potentially leading to genetic bottlenecks and more local extinctions. An increase in the intensity of wasp control, in combination with other conservation management methods, is required for the protection and recovery of O. ptunarra.     

Mitochondrial and Nuclear DNA Based Genetic Assessment Indicated Distinct Variation and Low Genetic Exchange Among the Three Subspecies of Swamp Deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rucervus</Emphasis> <Emphasis Type="Italic">duvaucelii</Emphasis>)

The swamp deer (Rucervus duvaucelii) occurs, primarily, in the wet grasslands of the Himalayan foothills as well as the dry grasslands of central India. Three subspecies have been identified, namely R. duvaucelii duvaucelii, R. duvaucelii branderi and R. duvaucelii ranjitsinhi. Degradation of grassland habitats led to a drastic decline in the total swamp deer population in the early 19th century. Even though the species has recently shown signs of recovery, it is still vulnerable to the small-population paradigm. Effective management plans need to be put in place to increase the population through scientific intervention. The current genetic variation within the three subspecies of R. duvaucelii is unclear, and this is hindering effective conservation planning. We examined the genetic variability, population structure and demography of the three subspecies of swamp deer using the mtDNA control region and microsatellite analysis. Despite the spatial isolation of the populations, we found a high level of variation and weak divergence among the subspecies. The genetic differentiation (F _ST ) between the subspecies and the mismatch distribution of haplotypes indicated recent colonization by these subspecies. Population bottleneck analysis indicated that the existing subspecies and their populations are at demographic equilibrium and are stable. The study highlights the need for effective conservation management intervention to maintain the population size and genetic diversity. It also indicates that all the subspecies need to be managed as separate conservation units.     

Microsatellite DNA analysis of population structure in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cornops aquaticum</Emphasis> (Orthoptera: Acrididae), over a cline for three Robertsonian translocations

The grasshopper Cornops aquaticum occurs between Mexico (23°N) and Uruguay and Central Argentina (35°S). It was recently introduced as a pest control agent of the neotropical water-hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes in South Africa. The information about the amount and distribution of genetic variability of the native populations may optimise the results of biological control programmes. Here we analyse microsatellite variability at the south of C. aquaticum’s distribution, coinciding with a cline for three polymorphic Robertsonian translocations along the Paraná River in order to: (1) estimate the amount of intrapopulation variation and its correlation with geographic/climatic variables, (2) infer interpopulation genetic variation and assess connectivity between local populations and (3) compare chromosome, morphometric and molecular variation patterns to analyse the probable causes involved in the maintenance of intraspecific variation. Our sample of 170 individuals of C. aquaticum from seven Argentine populations between latitudes 27°S to 34°S showed 211 alleles across seven microsatellite loci. Genetic diversity was estimated through average number of alleles, allelic richness, expected heterozygosity and observed heterozygosity. The analysis of molecular variance showed significant genetic differentiation among populations. Pairwise comparisons of F_ST/R_ST and Bayesian population assignment method and the discriminant analysis of principal components revealed that the two southernmost populations are more differentiated. Genetic diversity is negatively correlated with Southern latitude and with Robertsonian translocation frequencies. Our results showed that the Paraná River’s middle course populations are genetically undifferentiated and more genetically diverse than the highly chromosomally polymorphic downstream ones. The chromosomal polymorphisms are associated with increased body size in the direction in which larger size is adaptive. This may be relevant for C. aquaticum’s role as a pest control agent, since chromosome variability would enhance the ability of the species for a successful settlement in its new habitats, especially in temperate regions of the world.     

Genetic diversity through time and space: diversity and demographic history from natural history specimens and serially sampled contemporary populations of the threatened Gouldian finch (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Erythrura gouldiae</Emphasis>)

Declines in population size can compromise the viability of populations by reducing the effective population size (N_e), which may result in loss of genetic diversity and inbreeding. Temporal population genetic data can be a powerful tool for testing the presence and severity of reductions in N_e. The Gouldian finch (Erythrura gouldiae) is a flagship for conservation of Australian monsoonal savanna species. This species underwent severe population declines in the twentieth century due to land use changes associated with European colonization. Microsatellite and mitochondrial genetic data from Gouldian finch samples sourced from natural history collections prior to land use changes were compared with contemporary samples to estimate the severity of decline in effective population size and to detect changes in gene flow. These data show that Gouldian finch decline was not as severe as some sources suggest, and that population genetic connectivity has not changed following land use changes in the twentieth century. Multiple estimators of current N_e using genetic data from consecutive years suggest the Gouldian finch N_e is likely between a few hundred and a few thousand individuals, with some estimates within the range considered of conservation concern. This work has identified the need to genetically characterize populations in Queensland, and to understand critical demographic parameters (e.g. lifespan) in the Gouldian finch. Understanding these factors is vital to further improve genetic estimates of population size, key to the formation of appropriate conservation management of this species.     

Genetic diversity of Indian jujube cultivars using SCoT,ISSR, and rDNA markers

Genetic variation and relationships among 37 cultivars of Ziziphus mauritiana (Lamk.) native of India were analyzed using start codon targeted (SCoT), inter-simple sequence repeats (ISSR), and ribosomal DNA (rDNA) markers. High level of polymorphism among SCoT (61.6%) and ISSR (61%) primers with higher PIC values ranging from 63.1 to 90.4% of SCoT and 47.3 to 88.8% of ISSR primers was recorded. SCoT and ISSR dendrograms revealed similarity coefficients ranging from 0.80 to 0.92 and 0.79 to 0.96, respectively, and clearly delineated all the cultivars of Z. mauritiana into well-supported distinct clusters. Greater Gst signifies higher amount of differentiation observed over multiple loci among seven Z. mauritiana populations. On the other hand, higher gene flow demonstrating a very high migration rate between Z. mauritiana populations indicated higher rates of transfer of alleles or genes from one population to another. The genetic diversity of population 1 (Rajasthan) was the richest among all the seven populations. The largest genetic distance was measured between Maharashtra and West Bengal and the least between Rajasthan and Punjab cultivars. Most of the genetic diversity exists within population rather than among populations. Substantial variation in the ITS-1 region signifies its phylogenetic utility specifically in assessing genetic diversity in Z. mauritiana. The clustering patterns using three molecular marker systems vis-à-vis place of origin exhibited no consistency in grouping of Z. mauritiana cultivars as cultivars from the same place of origin were genetically cataloged into different SCoT, ISSR, and ITS phylogram clusters indicating wide genetic diversity and distribution across agro-climatic zones validating the robustness of marker systems tested.     

Historical and recent reductions in genetic variation of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sarotherodon galilaeus</Emphasis> population in the Sea of Galilee

The Sea of Galilee has great significance as a natural habitat and a freshwater source for Israel. Anthropogenic impacts have been placing significant pressure on the species inhabiting this lake, among which is Sarotherodon galilaeus, an omnivorous fish with a relatively large population and significance for commercial fishing. An alarming decline in annual catch towards 2008 suggested that this unique population might be at risk. With that in mind, we characterized the current genetic variation of this species in Israel with reference to fish from Ghana, based on D-loop and microsatellite markers. Genetic variation and differentiation were found mostly among fish from Ghanaian localities and between fish from Israel and Ghana, whereas fish from all Israeli localities had uniform and limited variation, a signature compatible with historical founder effect followed by local adaptations. Such historical processes could leave a population vulnerable as reflected in the sudden and recent population decline. Comparing genetic variation between archived 30 year-old scales and modern lake fish revealed further reduction in genetic variation coincident with the recent population decline. Thus, a recently occurring genetic bottleneck had placed this unique and isolated population at an even higher risk. We carefully discuss the events leading to the current risk status for S. galilaeus in Israel and highlight the need for vigilant monitoring and active management to support a more sustainable future for this and other fish communities in this important habitat.     

Past lake shore dynamics explain present pattern of unidirectional introgression across a habitat barrier

Introgression patterns between divergent lineages are often characterized by asymmetry in the direction and among-marker variation in the extent of gene flow, and therefore inform on the mechanisms involved in differentiation and speciation. In the present study, we test the hypothesis that unidirectional introgression between two phenotypically and genetically distinct lineages of the littoral, rock-dwelling cichlid fish Tropheus moorii across a wide sandy bay is linked to observed differences in mate preferences between the two lineages. This hypothesis predicts bi-directional nuclear gene flow and was rejected by congruent patterns of introgression in mtDNA, AFLP and microsatellite markers, with admixture confined to the populations west of the bay. This pattern can be explained on the basis of habitat changes in the course of lake level fluctuations, which first facilitated the development of a symmetric admixture zone including the area corresponding to the present sand bay and then shaped asymmetry by causing local extinctions and cessation of gene flow when this area became once more inhabitable. This conforms with previous assumptions that habitat dynamics are a primary determinant of population-level evolution in Tropheus. In this respect, Tropheus may be representative of species whose preferred habitat is subject to frequent re-structuring.     

Effects of founding genetic variation on adaptation to a novel resource

Population genetic theory predicts that adaptation in novel environments is enhanced by genetic variation for fitness. However, theory also predicts that under strong selection, demographic stochasticity can drive populations to extinction before they can adapt. We exposed wheat-adapted populations of the flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum) to a novel suboptimal corn resource, to test the effects of founding genetic variation on population decline and subsequent extinction or adaptation. As previously reported, genetically diverse populations were less likely to go extinct. Here, we show that among surviving populations, genetically diverse groups recovered faster after the initial population decline. Within two years, surviving populations significantly increased their fitness on corn via increased fecundity, increased egg survival, faster larval development, and higher rate of egg cannibalism. However, founding genetic variation only enhanced the increase in fecundity, despite existing genetic variation-and apparent lack of trade-offs-for egg survival and larval development time. Thus, during adaptation to novel habitats the positive impact of genetic variation may be restricted to only a few traits, although change in many life-history traits may be necessary to avoid extinction. Despite severe initial maladaptation and low population size, genetic diversity can thus overcome the predicted high extinction risk in new habitats.     

Admixture between released and wild game birds: a changing genetic landscape in European mallards (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Anas platyrhynchos</Emphasis>)

Disruption of naturally evolved spatial patterns of genetic variation and local adaptations is a growing concern in wildlife management and conservation. During the last decade, releases of native taxa with potentially non-native genotypes have received increased attention. This has mostly concerned conservation programs, but releases are also widely carried out to boost harvest opportunities. The mallard, Anas platyrhynchos, is one of few terrestrial migratory vertebrates subjected to large-scale releases for hunting purposes. It is the most numerous and widespread duck in the world, yet each year more than three million farmed mallard ducklings are released into the wild in the European Union alone to increase the harvestable population. This study aimed to determine the genetic effects of such large-scale releases of a native species, specifically if wild and released farmed mallards differ genetically among subpopulations in Europe, if there are signs of admixture between the two groups, if the genetic structure of the wild mallard population has changed since large-scale releases began in the 1970s, and if the current data matches global patterns across the Northern hemisphere. We used Bayesian clustering (Structure software) and Discriminant Analysis of Principal Components (DAPC) to analyze the genetic structure of historical and present-day wild (n?=?171 and n?=?209, respectively) as well as farmed (n?=?211) mallards from six European countries as inferred by 360 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Both methods showed a clear genetic differentiation between wild and farmed mallards. Admixed individuals were found in the present-day wild population, implicating introgression of farmed genotypes into wild mallards despite low survival among released farmed mallards. Such cryptic introgression would alter the genetic composition of wild populations and may have unknown long-term consequences for conservation.     

Increase in density of genetically diverse invasive Asian shore crab (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hemigrapsus sanguineus</Emphasis>) populations in the Gulf of Maine

Hemigrapsus sanguineus, the Asian shore crab, has rapidly replaced Carcinus maenas, the green crab, as the most abundant crab on rocky shores in the northwest Atlantic since its introduction to the United States (USA) in 1988. The northern edge of this progressing invasion is the Gulf of Maine, where Asian shore crabs are only abundant in the south. We compared H. sanguineus population densities to those from published 2005 surveys and quantified genetic variation using the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene. We found that the range of H. sanguineus had extended northward since 2005, that population density had increased substantially (at least 10-fold at all sites), and that Asian shore crabs had become the dominant intertidal crab species in New Hampshire and southern Maine. Despite the significant increase in population density of H. sanguineus, populations only increased by a factor of 14 in Maine compared to 70 in southern New England, possibly due to cooler temperatures in the Gulf of Maine. Genetically, populations were predominantly composed of a single haplotype of Japanese, Korean, or Taiwanese origin, although an additional seven haplotypes were found. Six of these haplotypes were of Asian origin, while two are newly described. Large increases in population sizes of genetically diverse individuals in Maine will likely have a large ecological impact, causing a reduction in populations of mussels, barnacles, snails, and other crabs, similar to what has occurred at southern sites with large populations of this invasive crab species.     

Genetic structure of winter populations of the endangered Indiana bat (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Myotis sodalis</Emphasis>) prior to the white nose syndrome epidemic: implications for the risk of disease spread

The spread of white nose syndrome raises serious concerns about the long-term viability of affected bat species. Here we examine the geographic distribution of genetic variation, levels of population connectivity that may influence the spatial spread of WNS, and the likelihood that recent population declines in regions affected by WNS have led to the loss of unique genetic variation for the endangered Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis). We amplified a fragment of the mitochondrial control region for 375 individuals and genotyped 445 individuals at 10 microsatellite loci from 18 sampling sites distributed across the majority of the species’ range. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA indicated the presence of at least five distinct matrilineal clusters, with the most pronounced differences between northeastern sites and those in the rest of the range. The majority of individuals in the Ozark-Central, Midwest, and Appalachian recovery units fell into a single cluster. Significant differentiation also was observed between one Appalachian and one Midwestern site and the majority of other sites. However, using nuclear microsatellites we observed the absence of differentiation and widespread gene flow among all hibernacula, suggesting the occurrence of extensive gene flow through dispersal and mating. The absence of genetically distinct populations within the range of Indiana bats indicates a lack of barriers to WNS transmission, and it is unlikely that significant portions of the hibernating population of Indiana bats will remain disease free into the future. Further, while matrilineal gene flow was restricted among some sites and regions, we found no genetic evidence to support the division of Indiana bats into separate recovery units.     

Assessment of spatial–temporal variation in natural populations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Brassica incana</Emphasis> in south Italy: implications for conservation

Brassica incana is a secondary-gene pool wild relative of Brassica oleracea. Twenty-two B. incana populations are recorded in Italy, where the species has recently been pointed out as in priority need of conservation. While data on the spatial and temporal variation of B. incana Italian populations are completely lacking, this information is useful in conservation planning for this species. Three populations from the Sorrento peninsula and from the islands of Ischia and Capri, collected in 1984 and 2012, were characterised for 12 morpho-phenological and 21 genetic traits to assess their spatial–temporal variation. The populations were quite different for morpho-phenological and genetic traits. Spatial differentiation was high and easily explained by the isolation. Temporal differentiation between the Sorrento and Ischia populations was high and explained by a reduction in the population census across time, while it was not significant between the two Capri accessions as such pointing to a major effect of genetic drift. Numerical dimension is extremely relevant in evaluating conservation priorities since it has a major impact on population dynamics over time. The Sorrento and Ischia populations are under threat and urgently need conservation actions, suggesting an alarming scenario for the survival of other crop wild relative populations which are similar in census. Our data also show that, in an allogamous and self-incompatible species like B. incana, populations of 100–200 individuals maintain high allelic diversity. According to obtained results, natural populations of species with similar reproductive system and census can be considered at low risk of genetic erosion.     

Mitogenomic analysis of the Australian lungfish (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Neoceratodus forsteri</Emphasis>) reveals structuring of indigenous riverine populations and late Pleistocene movement between drainage basins

Neoceratodus forsteri: is a freshwater species of Dipnoan currently listed as ‘vulnerable to extinction’ under Australian legislation. The species is restricted to at least two indigenous riverine populations in southeastern Queensland, and several other putatively translocated populations. Current understanding of genetic relationships among populations is based on studies of allozymes, microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) fragments. A notable feature of all these datasets was low genetic variability. Here we sequence the complete mitogenome of 71 N. forsteri individuals from five populations to improve resolution of mtDNA diversity, examine relationships among populations, and evaluate recent demographic history. We recorded 137 variable positions forming 41 haplotypes in the 16,573 bp mitogenome alignment. Strong genetic structure was observed among riverine samples (global Φ_ST?=?0.342) in a pattern consistent with translocation history. Tinana Creek was confirmed as an isolated and genetically unique subpopulation that should be recognized as a distinct management unit. Two previously unreported mtDNA clades (0.46% mean divergence) were found and suggest that genetic exchange among coastal catchments may have been facilitated by riverine connections on the exposed continental shelf during the late Pleistocene. Extended Bayesian skyline analysis showed no evidence for recent historical change in female effective population size, and codon-based selection tests found no evidence for positive selection in coding genes. Overall, our results emphasise the utility of the full mtDNA molecule for capturing population structure in taxa with low genetic diversity. In such cases, informative variation may be scattered across disparate parts of the mitogenome. Surveying relatively short fragments of mtDNA may lead to significant underestimates of population structure when applied to threatened species with low genetic diversity.