Indirect effects of phytochemicals on offspring performance of Queensland fruit fly,Bactrocera tryoni (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Phytochemical lures such as methyl eugenol (ME) and cue‐lure are used in the management of Bactrocera fruit flies for monitoring and control. These lures are not just attractants, but also trigger physiological changes in males that lead to enhanced mating success. Additionally, in the cue‐lure‐responsive Bactrocera tryoni, females mated with lure‐fed males exhibit changes in fecundity, remating receptivity and longevity. While the lures show current generation effects, no research has been carried out on possible multigenerational effects, although such effects have been hypothesized within a ‘sexy‐son’ sexual selection model. In this study, we test for indirect, cross‐generational effects of lure exposure in F1offspring of B. tryoni females mated with cue‐lure‐fed, zingerone‐fed and lure‐unfed (=control) males. The F1 attributes we recorded were immature development time, immature survival, adult survival and adult male lure foraging. No significant differences were found between treatments for any of the three life‐history measurements, except that the offspring sired by zingerone‐fed males had a longer egg development time than cue‐lure and control offspring. However, indirect exposure to lures significantly enhanced the lure‐foraging ability of F1 adult males. More offspring of cue‐lure‐fed males arrived at a lure source in both large flight cages and small laboratory cages over a 2‐h period than did control males. The offspring of zingerone‐fed males were generally intermediate between cue‐lure and control offspring. This study provides the first evidence of a next generation effect of fruit fly male lures. While the results of this study support a ‘sexy‐son’ sexual selection mechanism for the evolution of lure response in Bactrocera fruit flies, our discussion urges caution in interpreting our results in this way.     

Field captures of wild melon fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) with an improved male attractant, raspberry ketone formate

Field-trapping evaluations of the new male attractant, formic acid 4-(3-oxobutyl) phenyl ester (raspberry ketone formate [RKF]) were conducted in Hawaii with wild populations of melon flies, Bactrocera cucurbitae Coquillett (Diptera: Tephritidae), to determine its activity in the field and to evaluate new plastic matrix formulations. All tests were compared with the standard melon fly attractant 4-(4-acetoxyphenyl) -2-butanone (cuelure [CL]), which is the attractant of choice for detection programs aimed at melon fly and other cuelure-responding Bactrocera fruit flies. Results of these tests over a range of doses on cotton wicks showed that at a 1-g dose raspberry ketone formate was 1.5-2 times more attractive compared with cuelure for up to 11 wk in the field. Lower doses applied on cotton wicks were less active, presumably due to hydrolysis of RKF to raspberry ketone. Raspberry ketone formate embedded in a plastic plug formulation also was field tested, and it was shown to be more attractive to male melon fly compared with cuelure. The use of this new attractant in control and detection programs is discussed.     

Raspberry ketone-supplemented diet has no effect on fitness parameters or lure responsiveness in male melon flies,Zeugodacus cucurbitae (Diptera: Tephritidae)

The male annihilation technique (MAT) and sterile insect technique (SIT) are often used to control pestiferous tephritid fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae). MAT involves the deployment of traps containing a male attractant and insecticide with the goal of drastically reducing male abundance and ultimately eliminating the entire population. SIT, which involves the mass production, sterilization, and release of the target species, may also be implemented to achieve final extirpation. Generally, simultaneous implementation of MAT and SIT is counterproductive, because the presence of large numbers of male-specific traps in the environment (MAT) would greatly reduce the number of sterile males available for copulating with wild females (SIT). However, studies on the Queensland fruit fly, Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt), indicate that concurrent use of MAT and SIT may be feasible. Sexually mature males of B. tryoni are attracted to the raspberry ketone and its synthetic analogue cue-lure. Males of B. tryoni fed raspberry-ketone-supplemented diet when newly emerged showed lower attraction to cue-lure baited traps than control males. In addition, newly emerged males provided this diet displayed accelerated sexual maturation, which would allow the early release of sterile males and reduce pre-release holding costs. Here, we examined whether the addition of raspberry ketone to the adult diet of male melon flies, Zeugodacus cucurbitae (Coquillett), produced effects similar to those observed for B. tryoni. Despite using similar methods, no significant effect of raspberry ketone-supplemented diet on time to sexual maturity, survival, mating competitiveness, or attraction to cue-lure baited traps in mass-reared Z. cucurbitae males.     

Trap capture of three economically important fruit fly species (Diptera: Tephritidae): evaluation of a solid formulation containing multiple male lures in a Hawaiian coffee field

Invasive fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) pose a global threat to agriculture through direct damage to food crops and the accompanying trade restrictions that often result. Early detection is vital to controlling fruit flies, because it increases the probability of limiting the growth and spread of the invasive population and thus may greatly reduce the monetary costs required for eradication or suppression. Male-specific lures are an important component of fruit fly detection, and three such lures are used widely: trimedlure (TML), cue lure (CL), and methyl eugenol (ME), attractive to Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann); melon fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett); and oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), respectively. In California, Florida, and Texas, the two Bactrocera lures are applied to separate species-specific traps as liquids (with a small amount of the insecticide naled added), whereas TML is delivered as a solid plug in another set of traps. Thus, the detection protocol involves considerable handling time as well as potential contact with a pesticide. The purpose of this study was to compare trap capture between liquid male lures and "trilure" wafers that contain TML, ME, raspberry ketone (RK, the hydroxy equivalent of CL), and the toxicant DDVP embedded within a solid matrix. Field studies were conducted in a Hawaiian coffee (Coffea arabica L.) field where the three aforementioned species co-occur, showed that the wafer captured at least as many flies as the liquid baits for all three species. This same result was obtained in comparisons using both fresh and aged (6-wk) baits. Moreover, the wafers performed as well as the single-lure traps in an ancillary experiment in which TML plugs were substituted for liquid TML. Additional experiments demonstrated explicitly that the presence of ME and RK had no effect on captures of C. capitata males and similarly that the presence of TML had no effect on the capture of B. cucurbitae or B. dorsalis males.     

Attractiveness to Anastrepha ludens (Diptera: Tephritidae) of plant essential oils and a synthetic food-odour lure

Abstract:  Experiments were conducted in a citrus orchard to investigate the attractiveness of 26 plant essential oils individually and in combination with a synthetic food odour lure to the Mexican fruit fly, Anastrepha ludens Loew. Anise, rose/grape seed, and tea tree oils were more attractive than unbaited traps but none approached the attractiveness of Advanced Pheromone Technologies' AFF lure, a synthetic food-odour lure that emits several nitrogenous chemicals attractive to this fly. Traps baited with most of the oils were less attractive than unbaited traps. Rose/grape seed oil and pure-rose oil enhanced attractiveness of AFF lures to both males and females by about 68%. Grape seed oil did not enhance the attractiveness of AFF lures demonstrating that rose oil was the active component of the rose/grape seed oil. No other oil enhanced attractiveness of AFF lures and most decreased attraction to AFF lures. The possibility that highly attractive chemicals may be present in rose oil as minor components is discussed. Traps baited with the combination of clove bud oil and the AFF lure captured only 3% as many flies as traps baited only with the AFF lure indicating that clove bud oil is highly repellent to Mexican fruit flies.     

Synthetic Sex Pheromone in a Long-Lasting Lure Attracts the Visceral Leishmaniasis Vector,Lutzomyia longipalpis,for up to 12 Weeks in Brazil

Current control methodologies have not prevented the spread of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) across Brazil. Here, we describe the development of a new tool for controlling the sand fly vector of the disease: a long-lasting lure, which releases a synthetic male sex pheromone, attractive to both sexes of Lutzomyia longipalpis. This device could be used to improve the effectiveness of residual insecticide spraying as a means of sand fly control, attracting L. longipalpis to insecticide-treated animal houses, where they could be killed in potentially large numbers over a number of weeks. Different lure designs releasing the synthetic pheromone (±)-9-methylgermacrene-B (CAS 183158-38-5) were field-tested in Araçatuba, São Paulo (SP). Experiments compared numbers of sand flies caught overnight in experimental chicken sheds with pheromone lures, to numbers caught in control sheds without pheromone. Prototype lures, designed to last one night, were first used to confirm the attractiveness of the pheromone in SP, and shown to attract significantly more flies to test sheds than controls. Longer-lasting lures were tested when new, and at fortnightly intervals. Lures loaded with 1 mg of pheromone did not attract sand flies for more than two weeks. However, lures loaded with 10 mg of pheromone, with a releasing surface of 15 cm² or 7.5 cm², attracted female L. longipalpis for up to ten weeks, and males for up to twelve weeks. Approximately five times more sand flies were caught with 7.5 cm² 10 mg lures when first used than occurred naturally in non-experimental chicken resting sites. These results demonstrate that these lures are suitably long-lasting and attractive for use in sand fly control programmes in SP. To our knowledge, this is the first sex pheromone-based technology targeting an insect vector of a neglected human disease. Further studies should explore the general applicability of this approach for combating other insect-borne diseases.     

The mating system of the true fruit fly Bactrocera tryoni and its sister species,Bactrocera neohumeralis

The frugivorous “true” fruit fly, Bactrocera tryoni (Queensland fruit fly), is presumed to have a nonresourced‐based lek mating system. This is largely untested, and contrary data exists to suggest Bactrocera tryoni may have a resource‐based mating system focused on fruiting host plants. We tested the mating system of Bactrocera tryoni, and its close sibling Bactrocera neohumeralis, in large field cages using laboratory reared flies. We used observational experiments that allowed us to determine if: (i) mating pairs were aggregated or nonaggregated; (ii) mating system was resource or nonresource based; (iii) flies utilized possible landmarks (tall trees over short) as mate‐rendezvous sites; and (iv) males called females from male‐dominated leks. We recorded nearly 250 Bactrocera tryoni mating pairs across all experiments, revealing that: (i) mating pairs were aggregated; (ii) mating nearly always occurred in tall trees over short; (iii) mating was nonresource based; and (iv) that males and females arrived at the mate‐rendezvous site together with no evidence that males preceded females. Bactrocera neohumeralis copulations were much more infrequent (only 30 mating pairs in total), but for those pairs there was a similar preference for tall trees and no evidence of a resource‐based mating system. Some aspects of Bactrocera tryoni mating behavior align with theoretical expectations of a lekking system, but others do not. Until evidence for unequivocal female choice can be provided (as predicted under a true lek), the mating system of Bactrocera tryoni is best described as a nonresource based, aggregation system for which we also have evidence that land‐marking may be involved.     

Functional significance of phytochemical lures to dacine fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae): an ecological and evolutionary synthesis

While lures of plant origin are vital tools in dacine (Diptera: Tephritidae) pest management, the ecological and evolutionary significance of this lure response remains enigmatic. Two hypotheses (the ancestral host hypothesis and sexual selection by female choice) have been invoked to explain the functional significance of these chemicals to dacine fruit flies. These hypotheses are often treated as alternatives to one another and evidence favouring one is used to reject the other. This review highlights that these two hypotheses are not logical alternatives to each other as the ancestral host hypothesis attempts to explain the ultimate function of the response of Dacinae to these plant-derived parapheromones while the sexual selection hypothesis provides a proximate explanation for lure response. Research on lure response, dacine mating behaviour, functional significance of lures, plant phylogeny and biochemistry and dacine pheromone chemistry are used to evaluate the evidence in relation to both these hypotheses. Some of the key findings are that there is evidence both in support of and against these two hypotheses. Response of fruit flies to related phenyl propanoids to those commonly used as lures in pest management and distribution of phenyl propanoids attractive to dacines among plant orders strongly support the ancestral host hypothesis. Evidence from pheromone chemistry, dacine mating behaviour and the functional significance of lures both support and contradict the sexual selection hypothesis. Lures appear to have different proximate functions in different dacine species. Considerably greater research is needed to clarify the functional role of phytochemical lures to dacine fruit flies. The two prevalent hypotheses should be investigated independently. Specific research on dacine phylogeny and distribution of lures in plants in relation to ecological roles played by adult dacines is required to elucidate the ultimate roles of the chemicals. Exploration of female response to lures and the behavioural consequences of dacine response to these chemicals to both the insect and plant may shed light on the proximate functions of these chemicals.     

Zingerone in the floral synomone of Bulbophyllum baileyi (Orchidaceae) attracts Bactrocera fruit flies during pollination

Many orchids use specific volatile chemical(s) in floral fragrance to attract potential pollinators to locate and visit flowers in the tropical rain forests. Male fruit flies (Bactrocera species) are attracted to the ‘fruity odour’ of Bulbophyllum baileyi. The floral chemical component responsible for this fruit fly attraction is zingerone, which also acts as a floral chemical reward during pollination. Zingerone (5 mg), absorbed into a filter and released via a portable-battery operated fan between 0900 and 1100 h, attracted 5–7 males of Bactrocera indonesiae in an orchard located in Kedah, Malaysia. In Penang island, the fruit fly species attracted are Bactrocera dorsalis (methyl eugenol-sensitive) and Bactrocera albistragata (raspberry ketone-sensitive). An attracted male fruit fly probes and feeds on floral petal or sepal before climbing on to the small see-saw lip (labellum). While on the lip and due to shifting of the fly's weight, the fly is toppled head first into the column cavity and simultaneously touches and consequently gets stuck to the sticky viscidium of pollinarium that still remained in the anther. It spends 23–46 min trying to free itself from being suspended from the floral column. Removal of pollinarium (pollinia, stipe and viscidium) is a long process. A male B. dorsalis that fed on a B. baileyi flower was found to sequester zingerol (a reduced form of zingerone) in the body, suggesting its role as sex pheromone to attract a female during courtship behaviour.     

Capture of Bactrocera fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in traps baited with liquid versus solid formulations of male lures

Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) and B. cucurbitae (Coquillett) (Diptera: Tephritidae) are important agricultural pests of the Pacific region. Detection and control of these species rely largely on traps baited with male-specific attractants (parapheromones), namely methyl eugenol for B. dorsalis and cue lure for B. cucurbitae. Presently, these lures (plus naled, an insecticide) are applied in liquid form, although this procedure is time-consuming, and naled as well as methyl eugenol may pose human health risks. Recently, a solid formulation (termed a wafer) has been developed that contains both male lures (plus DDVP, an insecticide), and here we present data from field tests in California and Hawaii that compare the effectiveness of liquid versus solid formulations of the lures in capturing marked, released males of these two Bactrocera species. For both species and in both California and Hawaii, traps baited with the solid formulation of the male lure captured similar or significantly more released flies than the liquid formulation for both fresh and aged baits. Traps in Hawaii also captured wild (unmarked) males of both B. dorsalis and B. cucurbitae, and the results obtained for wild flies were similar to those recorded for released flies for both species. Collectively, the results presented suggest that the solid dispenser of the male lures constitutes a reliable substitute for the liquid formulation in detecting incipient Bactrocera outbreaks.     

Ecological significance of male attractant in the defence and mating strategies of the fruit fly, Bactrocera papayae

After being acclimatized to feeding on fruit flies, the Asian house gecko, Hemidactylus frenatus Duméril & Bibron (Gekkonidae:Squamata), consumed fewer methyl eugenol (ME) fed male fruit flies, Bactrocera papayae Drew & Hancock (Tephritidae: Diptera) than when offered ME-deprived males. After one-day exposure to only ME-fed males, the geckos avoided feeding on female flies when in the presence of ME-fed males. When mechanically disturbed, the ME-fed males spontaneously ejaculated a rectal secretion which contains phenyl propanoids that deter the predator.The ME-fed males also competed significantly better than normal (ME-deprived) males for virgin females. Male B. papayae converts ME to three other phenyl propanoids which act in concert as a sex pheromone to attract females during courtship and as an allomone to the gecko.     

Evaluation of synthetic sex pheromone for monitoring and management of raspberry crown borer Pennisetia marginata (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)

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Sequestration of 3-oxygenated α-ionone derivatives in the male rectal gland of the solanaceous fruit fly, Bactrocera latifrons

The solanaceous fruit fly, Bactrocera latifrons (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae), infests various solanaceous fruits including eggplant and chili peppers. We found that a freshly cut fruit of an eggplant cultivar [ Solanum melongena L. cv. Long Purple Oriental (Solanaceae)] selectively attracted and provoked voracious feeding behavior in adult B. latifrons males (but not in females) in an indoor test. One of the male-specific attractants/feeding stimulants in eggplant was identified as 3-hydroxy-α-ionone. Sexually mature males that fed on the eggplant pulp selectively accumulated a series of 3-oxygenated α-ionone/α-ionol analogs (e.g., 3-oxo-α-ionol and 3-oxo-7,8-dihydro-α-ionol) in the rectal gland, a suspected pheromone reservoir in male flies. Males fed on synthetic 3-hydroxy-α-ionone, 3-oxo-α-ionol, or 3-oxo-α-ionone partially biotransformed the compounds into 3-oxo-α-ionol, 3-oxo-α-ionone, and 3-oxo-7,8-dihydro-α-ionol and sequestered substantial quantities (as high as 5 µg/gland as a mixture) in a similar ratio in the rectal gland within 6 h after ingestion. These results suggest that the rectal sequestrates may serve as a sex pheromone similar to other Bactrocera species that use phenylpropanoid volatiles to attract conspecific females.     

Traps baited with pear ester and acetic acid attract both sexes of Hedya nubiferana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

This study was initiated with the objective of studying field responses of the green budworm moth, Hedya nubiferana (Haworth) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), to pear ester [PE; ethyl (E,Z)‐2,4‐decadienoate] and acetic acid (AA) with the aim of developing a lure attractive also for females. In the overwhelming majority of tests, traps baited with the PEAA lure (the combination of both PE and AA) caught more than traps baited with either of the constituents presented alone. PEAA lures were attractive to H. nubiferana no matter whether the two compounds were provided in separate dispensers or mixed together in a single one, and a large percentage (up to 71%) of trap catch consisted of females. Traps with PEAA lures caught (females plus males) on an average 30% of the catches in traps baited with the synthetic green budworm moth sex pheromone (only males). This suggested that the new PEAA lure had a trapping performance comparable with that of pheromone traps, which latter are used by farmers today. Consequently, the PEAA lure showed potential for future practical applications as a female‐targeted lure for H. nubiferana. To our knowledge, this is the first well‐documented report on the attraction of PEAA lure for a tortricid species other than codling moth.     

Bioactive fractions containing methyl eugenol-derived sex pheromonal components in haemolymph of the male fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Sex pheromonal components of the tephritid fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), 2-allyl-4,5-dimethoxyphenol and (E)-coniferyl alcohol, are biosynthesized from a highly potent male attractant, methyl eugenol, then sequestered and stored in the rectal gland prior to their release during courtship at dusk. These sex pheromonal components have been detected in the haemolymph and crop organ. Hence, attempts were made to separate and identify the haemolymph fractions which contained the sex pheromonal components. Identification of these bioactive fractions in methyl eugenol-fed male flies using gel filtration column chromatography and biodetection using live male flies showed two fractions as highly attractive to conspecific males. These fractions show a significant increase in protein absorbance in the elution profile of haemolymph from methyl eugenol-fed males compared with that from methyl eugenol-deprived males. The molecular mass of these bioactive fractions as determined by using gel filtration was in the peptide range of 3.3 to 5.5 kDa. Subsequent gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses further confirmed the presence of the pheromonal components in the bioactive fractions. The presence of these methyl eugenol-derived sex pheromonal components in specific haemolymph fractions suggests the involvement of a sex pheromone binding complex.     

Comparison of two synthetic food-odor lures for captures of feral Mexican fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Mexico and implications regarding use of irradiated flies to assess lure efficacy

Feral Mexican fruit flies, Anastrepha ludens (Loew) (Diptera: Tephritidae), were trapped in a citrus orchard in Mexico by using two types of synthetic food-odor lures, the AFF lure (Anastrepha fruit fly lure, APTIV, Inc., Portland, OR) and the BioLure (two-component MFF lure, Suterra LLC, Inc., Bend, OR). In Multilure traps (Better World Manufacturing, Inc., Miami, FL) containing water, BioLures captured about the same numbers of flies as AFF lures. In Multilure traps containing antifreeze solution, BioLures captured 2 and 5 times more flies than AFF lures in two experiments. BioLures, and AFF lures did not differ in attractiveness when used on sticky traps (Intercept trap, APTIV, Inc.; and sticky cylinder trap). Multilure traps captured >4 times as many flies as sticky traps with the exception that captures of females did not differ between Multilure and sticky traps baited with AFF lures. The percentage of females captured in Multilure traps was greater when traps were baited with BioLures compared with AFF lures, but the reverse was true for sticky traps. Sticky cylinder traps captured a higher percentage of females than Multilure traps. The most effective trap/lure combination was the Multilure trap baited with BioLure and antifreeze. In comparison with tests of these two lures in Texas, results were similar for Multilure traps, but they differed for sticky cylinder traps in that AFF lures were consistently more attractive than BioLures in Texas, but not in Mexico.     

Male lures and male mating competitiveness in a genetic sexing strain of the melon fly (Diptera: Tephritidae)

The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) has been used to suppress or eradicate populations of the melon fly, Zeugodacus cucurbitae (Coquillett), a pest of various fruits and vegetables throughout Asia, Africa, and South Pacific Islands. The success of the SIT depends largely on the ability of released, sterile males to compete successfully with wild males for copulations with wild females. Unfortunately, both the sterilization process (via gamma irradiation) and artificial selection under mass-rearing conditions generally reduce the biological competence, including the mating competitiveness, of the released males. However, previous data on Z. cucurbitae show that irradiation has minimal adverse effects and prolonged mass-rearing may or may not result in decreased mating ability. The present study first confirms that neither irradiation nor mass-rearing had deleterious effects on male mating ability of males from a pupal-color, genetic sexing strain (termed T1). Then, the influence of male lures (cue-lure and its natural analogue raspberry ketone) on the mating success of sterile T1 males was measured as a potential pre-release procedure to improve the effectiveness of SIT. Feeding on cue-lure enhanced male mating success, but the effect was short-lived (1 d but not 3 d post-feeding). Feeding on raspberry ketone boosted mating success over a longer time, i.e., at least 5 d but not 10 d post-feeding. However, mixing raspberry ketone into the adult diet had no detectable effect on male mating performance. The implications of these results for SIT against Z. cucurbitae are discussed.     

Feeding on yeast hydrolysate enhances attraction to cue‐lure in Queensland fruit flies,Bactrocera tryoni

Feeding on yeast hydrolysate (a source of nitrogen) has a strong influence on the physiology and behaviour of the Queensland fruit fly (Q‐fly), Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt) (Diptera: Tephritidae), affecting longevity, sexual maturation, oogenesis, and mating performance. In this study, we demonstrate that access to yeast hydrolysate also influences the development of attraction to cue‐lure in Q‐flies. We provided virgin Q‐flies various periods of access to yeast hydrolysate (continuous, 48 h, 24 h, or deprived). Attraction of males to cue‐lure was increased and occurred at an earlier age when they were fed yeast hydrolysate. Males given continuous access were strongly attracted to cue‐lure at a younger age (8 days after emergence), but by 12 days after emergence attraction of males given access to yeast hydrolysate for 48 h did not differ from males given continuous access. Attraction by males deprived or given just 24 h access to yeast hydrolysate was always significantly lower than those of males with continuous access. Male attraction to cue‐lure was highest in the early morning. While cue‐lure is most often thought of as a male attractant, virgin female Q‐flies were caught in cue‐lure traps at dusk at ages when they are known to be sexually mature. We suggest that cue‐lure or similar natural chemicals play a role in the Q‐fly mating system. γ‐Irradiation used to induce sterility had no significant effect on attraction to cue‐lure by Q‐flies.     

Evaluation of attractants for monitoring populations of the German cockroach (Dictyoptera: Blattellidae)

Lures that are used to attract German cockroaches, Blattella germanica (L.), to traps were compared in olfactometer assays in the laboratory and in trapping experiments in cockroach-infested homes and a swine farm. In olfactometer assays, AgriSense GP-2 was the most attractive lure, followed by peanut butter, and distiller's grain. Other lures, including Trapper tablet; Victor pheromone, a crude fecal extract that ostensibly contains B. germanica aggregation pheromone; and Victor food lure elicited upwind orientation from <50% of the test insects. Peanut butter and distiller's grain were equally attractive in trapping experiments in swine production barns and they captured significantly more cockroaches than the GP-2 tablet or the Victor pheromone lure; the commercial lures failed to attract significantly more cockroaches than the unbaited control traps. When tested against blank controls, cockroaches preferred to rest in shelters that contained the aggregation pheromone-based lure (Victor), but this lure was the least attractive to cockroaches in olfactometer assays. These results do not support claims that commercial crude fecal extracts attract cockroaches to traps, and they highlight a need for developing more attractive lures for detection of cockroaches and for monitoring populations.