Reproductive Cycle and Developmental Processes During Embryogenesis of Clavularia hamra (Cnidaria,Octocorallia)

Clavularia hamra Gohar, 1948 is a common octocoral on the reefs of the Gulf of Eilat (northern Red Sea). Reproductive biology of C. hamra was studied for two years. Direct observations of spawning were conducted in situ and in aquaria. Cleavage of eggs and further embryo metamorphosis into mature planulae were examined by scanning electron microscopy and histological sections. Clavularia hamra is dioecious. Young oocytes appear annually in September, gradually grow in size and attain maturity within 11 months. The main spawning event of the population is highly synchronized, occurring on a single night each year between the last quarter and the new moon in mid summer. The released orange eggs are held together by mucus and remain attached amongst the polyps on the outside of the female colonies. Twelve hours after spawning, the young embryos have blastomeres of equal size with numerous microvilli on their external surface. Due to unequal cleavage, bizarre embryos are also formed. By 48 h a blastopore is visible, indicating that a gastrula is developing. Eight days after spawning mature planulae are observed. The external mode of embryo development on the surface of the parent colony reduces dispersal of the planulae. However, this reproductive feature enhances formation of locally dense populations of C. hamra, with distinct habitat preferences.     

Early life history of the Mediterranean gorgonian Paramuricea clavata: implications for population dynamics

Abstract. Knowledge about early stages of marine sessile invertebrates dispersing by means of free-swimming propagules is fundamental toward understanding their population biology. In this study, we describe and quantify survivorship of early stages of the gorgonian Paramuricea clavata to contribute to the understanding of their implications on population dynamics of this emblematic species of the Mediterranean hard-bottom communities. Spawning was recorded in June for the 3 years studied (2001–2003). High levels of fertilization rate were observed during the main spawning in 2001 and 2002 (62–69%). This appears to be related to the surface brooding mode of development, synchronous spawning, and high fecundity of the species. The timing of development of the blastulae was ∼24 h and the planulae appeared after 48–72 h. In the laboratory, metamorphosis into polyp started between 8 and 25 d, but this timing may have been delayed by lack of unknown appropriate cues for settlement. The behavior of first developed planulae exhibited a marked negative phototaxis that may be a strategy to avoid competition with fast-growing algae on photophilous habitats. Despite the high fertilization rate in P. clavata , laboratory and field experiences indicate that survivorship through the planulae and polyp stages was very low, given that none of the settled polyps survived for >7 months in both experimental years. The low survival of the early stages may help explain the low recruitment rates observed in the field in addition to indicating major limitations for colonization of new areas and for persistence of the local population under disturbances.     

Microsatellite variation reveals high levels of genetic variability and population structure in the gorgonian coral Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae across the Bahamas

The primary mechanism of gene flow in marine sessile invertebrates is larval dispersal. In Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae, a commercially important Caribbean gorgonian coral, a proportion of the larvae drop to the substratum within close proximity to the maternal colony, and most matings occur between individuals in close proximity to each other. Such limited dispersal of reproductive propagules suggests that gene flow is limited in this gorgonian. In this study, we characterized the population genetic structure of P. elisabethae across the Bahamas using six microsatellite loci. P. elisabethae was collected from 18 sites across the Bahamas. Significant deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium due to deficits of heterozygotes within populations were detected for all 18 populations in at least one of the six screened loci. Levels of genetic structure among populations of P. elisabethae were high and significant. A distance analysis placed populations within three groups, one formed by populations located within Exuma Sound, a semi-isolated basin, another consisting of populations located outside the basin and a third group comprising two populations from San Salvador Island. The patterns of genetic variation found in this study are concordant with the life-history traits of the species and in part with the geography of the Bahamas. Conservation and management plans developed for P. elisabethae should considered the high degree of genetic structure observed among populations of the species, as well as the high genetic diversity found in the San Salvador and the Exuma Sound populations.     

Phylogeography and morphological variation of the branching octocoral Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae

Coral reef anthozoans exhibit extensive morphological variation across and within environmental clines making it difficult to define species boundaries. The relative contributions of genetic variation and ecophenotypic plasticity to the observed phenotypic variation are unknown in most cases. The branching octocoral Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae is widely distributed throughout the Caribbean and colonies vary in appearance within and among populations. We performed genetic and morphological analyses of P.elisabethae from multiple locations within the Bahamas, as well as a Florida Keys and a distant western Caribbean location to determine the levels of genetic and morphological variation (colony form and sclerites characteristics) across populations from different sites, and assessed whether there was congruence between the genetic and morphological variation. Based on sequences of the internal transcribed spacer region of the ribosomal DNA, four groups were found that generally correspond to the geography of the Bahamas. Morphometric analysis of branch and branchlet characteristics indicated that colonies from two of the sites differed from the rest, but there was no clear correspondence between genetic and morphological variation. In general, there were no qualitative differences in the sclerites from the different populations. However, there were some differences in the dimensions of scaphoids and rods of colonies from different sites. This study has shown that P. elisabethae displays genetic and morphologic variation among some populations of the Bahamas, Florida and San Andres, Colombia. P. elisabethae is harvested in the Bahamas and these findings should be considered in management plans and conservation efforts for the species.     

The Storm's Stork Ciconia stormi in Indonesia: breeding biology, population and conservation

Storm's Stork Ciconia stormi is one of the rarest of the storks, regarded as globally endangered and found only in parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei. Prior to this study, its breeding biology was unknown and the population status in Indonesia was not well understood. Its breeding habitat, prey, behaviour, voice, eggs and the development of the young are described here for the first time. Breeding biology was studied in 1989 at a nest in south Sumatra, Indonesia. The nest was in the transition zone between mangrove and freshwater swamp forest. Incubation took less than 29 days, and two eggs hatched. Fish 2–7 cm long comprised 67% of the prey for feeding young. The chick was fully feathered at 52–57 days and was seen flying when 57–62 days old. The species is rare in south Sumatra. It occurs in low numbers and flocks of up to seven birds were observed. The density is estimated at 20–40 birds within 110,000 ha of primary swamp forest. At this density, the population would be below 100 birds in south Sumatra and between 100 and 300 in Indonesia. The species is threatened by development and conversion of primary swamp forest.     

Annual variation in breeding biology of gentoo penguins, Pygoscelis papua, at Bird Island, South Georgia

The breeding biology of the gentoo penguin, Pygoscelis papua , was studied over a three-year period (1986–1988) at Bird Island, South Georgia, with particular reference to birds of known age or breeding experience. Laying date varied significantly between all three years, being three weeks later in 1987, when the breeding population decreased markedly. Factors involved in the timing of breeding are discussed. Within years egg-laying was highly synchronous: 95% of clutches were initiated in 14·5 days or less. The incubation period was 35 days and the laying interval, between the two eggs, 3·3–3·4 days. Chicks creched when 25–30 days old, and this varied between years, possibly related to food supply and chick growth. Chicks left the colony for the first time between 75 and 85 days of age. The breeding population at Bird Island decreased by 20% and increased by 84% in successive years during the study period. Breeding success (chicks fledged per egg laid) varied between 0·33 and 0·65 within colonies, but for the whole island was very consistent over the three years: 0·45, 0·51 and 0·47. Overall, colony differences were not correlated between years. Disturbance from Antarctic fur seals, Arctocephalus gazella , is suggested as the cause of consistently lower breeding success at one colony. Mean egg weight varied annually, and with age of the breeding bird, nest location and, in one year, with laying date. Young, first-time breeders laid smaller eggs and had lower breeding success compared to older, experienced birds, similar to other seabirds. However, they differed from other species in laying on average earlier than older birds. The relationship between age, egg weight, laying date and breeding success is discussed in relation to predation and seasonal food supply.     

Annual variation in breeding biology of macaroni penguins, Eudyptes chvysolophus, at Bird Island, South Georgia

The breeding biology of the macaroni penguin, Eudyptes chrysolophus , was studied over four years, 1976 and 1986–88, at Bird Island, South Georgia. Birds were migratory, being absent during winter (May to September). Arrival at the colony was highly synchronous between years: 14–23 October, over a 7-year period. The pre-breeding, incubation and chick-brooding period was characterized by long fasts ashore, for 36 and 39 days in males and 41 days in females, alternating with long periods at sea. Within years egg-laying was highly synchronous: 95% of clutches initiated within 4–6 days. Arrival date and mean egg-laying date were later (by 3 days), and breeding population size lower (by 20%) in 1987, compared to other years. The incubation period was 35 days and comprised three long shifts, the first shared by the male and female, the second by the female and the third by the male. In 1986 and 1988 these were of 12, 12 and 9 days' duration, but in 1987 the first shift was significantly shorter: 9 days. Chicks creched at 23–25 days of age and fledged at 60 days of age. Neither chick age nor weight at creching or fledging varied between the years 1986–88. The breeding biology of macaroni penguins at Bird Island is compared with that of other Eudyptes penguins, and with the sympatric gentoo penguin, Pygoscelispupuu. There is little variation in breeding biology within the genus Eudyptes , except in the length of time spent at sea prior to the annual moult. This is much shorter at Bird Island, probably reflecting a greater food availability compared to other localities. Inter-annual variation in certain breeding parameters, e.g. laying date, breeding population size, is much greater in the gentoo penguin than in the macaroni penguin. The shorter breeding season, rearing of only one chick and proportionately lower chick fledging weight in macaroni penguins, may be linked to this species' migratory strategy.     

Larval dispersal,recruitment, and adult distribution of the brooding stony octocoral<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Heliopora coerulea</Emphasis> on Ishigaki Island,southwest Japan

Larval dispersal and recruitment are important factors that determine the distribution of adult corals. The relationships between larval dispersal, recruitment, and the adult distribution of the blue octocoral, Heliopora coerulea, were investigated on Shiraho Reef, Ishigaki Island, southwest Japan. Heliopora coerulea is a surface brooder that releases planulae in June or July on Shiraho Reef. We observed planulae between 1998 and 2000 and found that they did not swim actively; instead, they crawled into their settlement positions after becoming grounded on the substratum. Planulae occurred throughout the water column and were dispersed by tidal and wind-driven currents around the parent population on the reef flat. Recruitment was observed only within 350 m of the parent populations, including areas between the branches of the adult colony. The planulae of H. coerulea had a narrow dispersal range as a result of their mostly benthic, shorter larval duration, and the influence of weaker currents. Thus, the dispersal distance of larvae is determined by their position in the water column, the currents that deliver the larvae, and the competency period of the larvae. The narrow dispersal range of H. coerulea was consistent with recruitment of sexually derived larvae onto their natal reef.     

Determinate growth and modularity in a gorgonian octocoral

Growth rates of branches of colonies of the gorgonian Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae were monitored for 2 years on a reef at San Salvador Island, Bahamas. Images of 261 colonies were made at 6-month intervals and colony and branch growth analyzed. Branch growth rates differed between colonies and between the time intervals in which the measurements were made. Colonies developed a plumelike morphology through a pattern of branch origination and determinate growth in which branch growth rates were greatest at the time the branch originated and branches seldom grew beyond a length of 8 cm. A small number of branches had greater growth rates, did not stop growing, and were sites for the origination of subsequent "generations" of branches. The rate of branch origination decreased with each generation of branching, and branch growth rates were lower on larger colonies, leading to determinate colony growth. Although colonial invertebrates like P. elisabethae grow through the addition of polyps, branches behave as modules with determinate growth. Colony form and size is generated by the iterative addition of branches.     

Colony growth responses of the Caribbean octocoral, Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae, to harvesting

Abstract. Colonies of the branching Caribbean gorgonian Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae were subjected to partial mortality at 2 sites in the Bahamas to study how colony growth responds to disturbances such as harvesting, grazing, and storm damage. Colonies were clipped so that either 4 branches or 10 branches remained. Growth rates of branches were then monitored over 1 year and compared with nearby unclipped colonies. No significant differences were found between branch extension rates among the 3 treatments. Extension rates of newly formed branches were significantly greater in all treatments than among branches present at the start of the experiment. Per capita branching rates were greater on the more severely clipped colonies and were smallest on control colonies. The absolute number of branches that became mother branches did not differ among treatments. Colonies clipped so that 4 and 10 branches remained had the same average number of mother branches per colony, and there was no significant difference between treatments in the average number of new branches formed on the colonies. Per capita branching rates were significantly different among treatments only because the relative proportion of branches that became mother branches was higher in colonies with four branches than in treatments with more initial branches. Total growth (cumulative growth on all branches) was not significantly different between the 2 clipped treatments. Many of the control colonies suffered extensive damage, which may have obscured the comparison of clipped and unclipped treatments; however, within the range of these clipping treatments, differing levels of partial mortality did not lead to different recovery rates. The lack of treatment effects is particularly relevant to assessing the effects of harvest techniques on the recovery and productivity of harvested, naturally occurring, colonies.     

The life cycle of Chrysaora lactea Eschscholtz, 1829 (Cnidaria,Scyphozoa) with notes on the scyphistoma stage of three other species

The life cycle of Chrysaora lactea Eschscholtz, 1829, a common species on the Brazilian coast, is described. Mature medusae were collected and isolated in a planktonkreisel, whereupon planulae appeared after 1–2 days. These planulae settled and metamorphosed into polyps. Fully developed scyphistomae typically possessed 16 tentacles, and on strobilation produced from 2 to 10 ephyrae. The ephyrae were transparent and had characteristic nematocyst warts on the exumbrella. Tentacles first appeared near the margin on the subumbrella. Ephyrae and young medusae were maintained in laboratory conditions up to 7 months.     

Experimental fragmentation reduces sexual reproductive output by the reef-building coral Pocillopora damicornis

Natural and anthropogenic disturbances may fragment stony reef corals, but few quantitative data exist on the impacts of skeletal fragmentation on sexual reproduction in corals. We experimentally fragmented colonies of the branching coral Pocillopora damicornis and determined the number and size of planula larvae released during one lunar reproductive cycle. Partially fragmented colonies significantly delayed both the onset and peak period of planula release compared with intact control colonies. Most fragments removed from the corals died within 11–18 days, and released few planulae. The total number of planulae released per coral colony varied exponentially with remaining tissue volume, and was significantly lower in damaged versus undamaged colonies. However, the number of planulae produced per unit tissue volume, and planula size, did not vary with damage treatment. We conclude that even partial fragmentation of P. damicornis colonies (<25% of tissue removed) decreases their larval output by reducing reproductive tissue volume. Repeated breakage of corals, such as caused by intensive diving tourism or frequent storms, may lead to substantially reduced sexual reproduction. Therefore, reef management should limit human activities that fracture stony corals and lead to decreases in colony size and reproductive output. Accepted: 2 February 2000     

Biochemical composition, metabolism, and amino acid transport in planula-larvae of the soft coral Heteroxenia fuscescens

We determined the monthly percentage of biochemical components in planulae of the soft coral Heteroxenia fuscescens, for a 3-year period, and evaluated the findings in relation to seasonal fluctuations in water temperature. We determined the biochemical profile and metabolic rate of aging planulae and examined the possible absorption of dissolved organic material (DOM) from the water by the planulae. Our study is the first to present a long-term biochemical profile of planulae. They contained an average of 2.2% ash, 51.5% lipid, 33.6% protein, and 1.3% carbohydrate. Calculation of the average energetic content of a planula revealed a value of 1. 63 J planula(-1). Significant seasonal differences in planulae weight were noted between the summer and the other seasons. A significant decrease (41%) from the initial weight, 0.029 mg, took place in the planulae dry weight within 15 days. Significant decreases over time were also found in lipid (50%) and carbohydrate (83%) concentration but not in protein (20%). Metabolic rates of a planula was 0.06 microl O(2) planula(-1) hr(-1). The study shows for the first time that a soft coral planulae can take up dissolved free amino acids from seawater. Even though each of the amino acids was initially present at equimolar concentrations, there was a much faster uptake for the neutral, nonpolar amino acids, than for polar and basic ones. The potential contribution to the metabolic demand of planulae, from the uptake of amino acids, is estimated to be 11%. It is suggested that this uptake does not appear to be due to energetic considerations, but may have a more significant impact on their nitrogen budget.     

Larger capsules enhance short‐range spore dispersal in Sphagnum,but what happens further away?

I made a dispersal experiment with six Sphagnum (peat moss) species, representing a wide range of spore and capsule sizes. Spore deposition was recorded at nine distances up to 3.2 m during two four-day periods with sunny conditions in July and August.
Deposition patterns in all species fitted well to the inverse power law (deposition per unit area proportional to distance^b), with rates of decline b ranging from −1.84 to −2.35 among species (R²>0.99). However, even when these curves are extended to infinity for the four species with b<−2, they fail to explain all spores being dispersed (e.g. only 11% in S. squarrosum ). Difference in rates of decline b between the periods, despite similar horizontal wind speeds and directions, indicates the importance of thermal updrafts. Spore capsule diameter negatively correlated with the proportions of spores remaining in dehisced capsules (range 5–16%), being deposited within the colony (range 2–14%), and being deposited between the colony edge and the outer sampled perimeter (range 7–22%), probably because a larger capsule shoots the spores higher into the air, in effect meaning an increased initial release height. Spore diameter positively affected deposition outside the colony edge. The deposition curves together with observed long-distance colonisations, omnipresence in mires of many Sphagnum species and genetic evidence, suggest that Sphagnum spores regularly travel far.
Spatial extension of the empirical deposition curves at a regional scale indicate that with increasing isolation of target sites, the higher the proportion of spores would originate from sources farther away than the nearest sources. Given spatial patterns in the source populations, this would result in higher genetic (and species) diversity per coloniser with increasing isolation, thus counteracting differentiation.     

The reproductive biology and early life ecology of a common Caribbean brain coral, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diploria labyrinthiformis</Emphasis> (Scleractinia: Faviinae)

Despite the fact that most of the severe demographic bottlenecks in coral populations occur during their earliest life stages, information on the reproductive biology and early life history traits of many coral species is limited and often inferred from adult traits only. This study reports on several atypical aspects of the reproductive biology and early life ecology of the grooved brain coral, Diploria labyrinthiformis (Linnaeus, 1758), a conspicuous reef-building species on Caribbean reefs. The timing of gamete release of D. labyrinthiformis was monitored in Curaçao over eight consecutive months, and embryogenesis, planulae behavior, and settlement rates were observed and quantified. We further studied growth and symbiont acquisition in juvenile D. labyrinthiformis for 3.5 yr and compared settler survival under ambient and nutrient-enriched conditions in situ. Notably, D. labyrinthiformis reproduced during daylight hours in six consecutive monthly spawning events between May and September 2013, with a peak in June. This is the largest number of reproductive events per year ever observed in a broadcast-spawning Caribbean coral species. In settlement experiments, D. labyrinthiformis planulae swam to the bottom of culture containers 13 h after spawning and rapidly settled when provided with settlement cues (42% within 14 h). After 5 months, the survival and growth rates of settled juveniles were 3.7 and 1.9 times higher, respectively, for settlers that acquired zooxanthellae within 1 month after settlement, compared to those that acquired symbionts later on. Nutrient enrichment increased settler survival fourfold, but only for settlers that had acquired symbionts within 1 month after settlement. With at least six reproductive events per year, a short planktonic larval phase, high settlement rates, and a positive response to nutrient enrichment, the broadcast-spawning species D. labyrinthiformis displays a range of reproductive and early life-history traits that are more often associated with brooding coral species, illustrating that classical divisions of coral species by reproductive mode alone do not always reflect the true biology and ecology of their earliest life stages.     

Interannual variation in the breeding biology of the Antarctic prion Pachyptila desolata at Bird Island, South Georgia

Interannual variation in aspects of the breeding biology of Antarctic prions was studied for three summers (1989–1992) at Bird island, South Georgia. Egg size, mass and incubation period remained constant. Laying, hatching and fledging were significantly delayed and less synchronous in 1991/92 (range of laying dates 51 days compared to 10–15 days in the two other seasons). This was due to an unusually cold and protracted winter, with ice blocking burrows into the spring, restricting availability of nest sites. Brooding lasted longer in 1991/92 but the overall fledging period was unchanged. Skeletal growth rates did not vary amongst years; growth in mass was slower in 1989/90 but fledging mass was similar in all three years. In 1989/90 and 1991/ 92 later hatched chicks grew (in mass) faster. The survival of chicks from hatching to fledging did not vary amongst years or with hatching date. Feeding frequency was similar between years, once allowance had been made for starlit nights. Thus late and asynchronous breeding in 1991/92 did not result in reduced breeding success either through predation or starvation.
Crustaceans formed 98–99% of the mass of the identifiable portion of regurgitated food samples. Significant annual variation was found within these crustaceans with the presence of krill (least in 1990/91) being inversely related to that of amphipods and copepods. There was no relationship between diet composition and chick growth or survival. Other seabird species, lacking the morphological specialization for feeding on copepods and amphipods, had very low breeding success in 1990/91, when krill was scarce.     

Substratum preferences and planulae settling of two red sea alcyonaceans: Xenia macrospiculata Gohar and Parerythropodium fulvum fulvum (Forskl)

The settling behaviour and substratum preferences of the planulae of the Red Sea soft corals Xenia macrospiculata Gohar and Parerythropodium fulvum fulvum (Forskl) were examined in the laboratory. The planulae of the two species have a short pelagic phase and they tend to settle immediately upon leaving the parent colonies. Mucous secretion is used by the larvae for crawling and adhering to the substratum. They exhibit an aggregated pattern of settlement. The developing polyps are found in depressions or pits of the substratum. The planulae preferentially settle on rough substrata and avoid smooth surfaces. They search for substrata covered with an organic coating, composed of turf or crustose coralline algae. Such substrata create better conditions for larval settlement and metamorphosis. The planulae of P. f. fulvum exhibit a striking preference for upside-down attachment on undersides of the substrata, while Xenia macrospiculata utilizes both substratum faces for settlement. Light intensity seems insignificant in determining attachment sites. The findings of the experiments correspond well with the distributional patterns of juveniles of the two species as found in the natural environment. The specific requirements for settling of both species increase their chances of successful development and thus enhance their survival.     

Biogeography of vascular plants on habitat islands, peninsulas and mainlands in an eascentral Swedish agricultural landscape

The increase of island species richness with area can be explained by an increase in habitat diversity or by an equilibrium of species immigration and extinction. We examined vascular plant species richness in 39 sites (24 habitat islands, 7 'habitat peninsulas' and 8 comparable 'mainland' sites). We sampled at three scales: whole sites, meadows within sites and quadrats (4 m × 4 m) within meadows. All sites (10–10⁴ m²) contained natural vegetation within arable fields in eascentral Sweden. There was a strong correlation between species richness and area for whole sites and for meadows There was no correlation, however, between species richness in quadrats and site area. The difference between site and meadow results on one side and quadrat results on the other suggests that species richness increases with whole site area primarily because large sites are more diverse than smaller ones. Speciearea relationships did not differ between islands, peninsula and mainland sites. Thus, patterns of species richness on our sites were more consistent with habitat diversity than an immigratioextinction equilibrium.     

Observations on the anatomy,behaviour, reproduction and life cycle of the cubozoan Carybdea sivickisi

Substantial numbers of the very small carybdeid jellyfish, Carybdea sivickisi, have been observed feeding actively by divers in the vicinity of fringing coral reefs. During the day specimens were seen in close association with the substrate and with sessile macroalgae. They appeared able to adhere to substrates by contact with an area on the aboral surface of the bell. Individuals maintained in the laboratory showed the same adhering ability. The adhesive organs correspond to 4 areas of raised secretory epithelium on the aboral surface.Following capture, one isolated specimen extruded a long gelatinous strand containing several thousand developing embryos and numerous functional nematocysts. The embryos developed into characteristic cubozoan planulae, which were able to attach themselves temporarily to substrates by means of nematocysts. After 4 days of free swimming, planulae began to attach permanently and to develop into sessile polyps with 3 or 4 tentacles, each armed with a single stenotele.The species displays sexual dimorphism and evidence for spermatophore formation and transfer which parallel that reported for Tripedalia cystophora. The presence of sperm-storage sacs in both sexes, the production of an embryo mass, the adhering behaviour and an apparent association with algal substrates are among features apparently unique to the species.     

The first British record and a new species of the superfamily Terrestricytheroidea (Crustacea, Ostracoda): morphology, ontogeny, lifestyle and phylogeny

Terrestricythere elisabethae sp. nov. is described from a semiterrestrial coastal habitat at two sites in Hampshire, southern England. It is the first record of a living population of the genus outside the Far East (north-west Pacific). Based on extensive collections and from observations of cultures, its morphology is described (including a formal definition of the unique 'visordont' hinge), as well as its ontogeny and lifestyle (encompassing habitat, life cycle, mode of life and locomotion). A further new species from Somerset, south-west England is also recorded on the basis of a single specimen but left in open nomenclature. The affinities of the Terrestricytheroidea are discussed in the context of a tentative phylogeny of podocopan Ostracoda. Both carapace and appendage characters are such as to warrant maintaining it as a separate superfamily, which is more closely related to the Cytheroidea and Darwinuloidea than to the Cypridoidea.  © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 142 , 253–288.