Aggregation in the tropical millipede Alloporus uncinatus (Diplopoda: Spirostreptidae)

Millipedes tend to have a near random dispersion pattern when surface active. Only in a few species do juvenile stadia form dense swarms. This study describes the occurrence and composition of aggregations in an adult population of the tropical spirostreptid millipede Alloporus uncinatus (Attems) inhabiting riparian forest in Zimbabwe. Also presented are the results of a field experiment designed to induce aggregation behaviour in a separate population with the addition of high quality food to the habitat.
Our initial hypothesis that the natural aggregations of between six and 42 individuals observed during the period of surface activity were part of the mating system in this species was refuted. Few mature males were present in aggregates and less than 1%, of copula pairs sampled were taken from aggregates. The composition of aggregates and the results of the experiment suggest that aggregations are associated with the feeding activities of immature individuals and are not related to reproductive activity. We suggest that the aggregations observed in A. uncinatus , although related, may perform different functions to the swarming behaviours observed in other millipede species.     

Cave Diplopoda of southern China with reference to millipede diversity in Southeast Asia

The diversity of Diplopoda in caves of southern China is remarkably high, often 5–6 species per cave, consisting mostly of local endemics and presumed troglobionts. These are evidently biased to just a few lineages, mainly members of the orders Chordeumatida and Callipodida, the families Cambalopsidae (Spirostreptida) and Haplodesmidae (Polydesmida) or the genera Pacidesmus, Epanerchodus and Glenniea (all Polydesmida, Polydesmidae), Trichopeltis (Polydesmida, Cryptodesmidae), Dexmoxytes (Polydesmida, Paradoxosomatidae) and Hyleoglomeris (Glomerida, Glomeridae). All these taxa, especially the Paradoxosomatidae and Cambalopsidae (usually amounting to about 60% and 10% of the total species diversity in the Oriental fauna, respectively), are moderately to highly speciose across Southeast Asia, being largely epigean. However, the epigean Diplopoda of southern China are yet badly understudied, since much of the collecting and taxonomic exploration efforts still focus on cavernicoles. The Oriental Region is the only biogeographic realm globally that harbours all 16 orders of Diplopoda, of which 14 have already been encountered in China and/or the immediately adjacent parts of Indochina. Thus, China may actually prove to support no less than 1,000 millipede species of various origins, mainly Oriental and Palaearctic.     

The Ericoideae and the southern African heathers

OLIVER, E. G. H., 1989. The Ericoideae and the southern African heathers. The subfamily Ericoideae (Ericaceae) containing the true heathers and heaths has been a group long recognized as a sound natural entity. With work on the southern African genera and species which comprise approximately 95% of the subfamily well in progress, a reassessment of the number of genera has become necessary because of the considerable variation recorded in, and the postulated polyphyletic origin of, the capsular genera. Changes envisaged will affect the whole concept of the heaths within Africa. The genus Philippia Klotzsch has been reduced to synonymy under Erica L. and it is shown that the case for a similar action is very strong for Blaeria L. and Ericinella Klotzsch. The position of the monotypic European genus, Bruckenthalia Reichb., is also affected but remains unresolved.     

Classification of the southern African sanga and East African shorthorned zebu

Humped African cattle, which are differentiated into zebu and sanga types, have traditionally been classified as Bos indicus . This paper discusses existing evidence and presents new evidence supporting the classification of southern African sangas as Bos taurus and East African zebus as ' taurindicus '. Classification is based on karyotype, frequencies of DNA markers and protein polymorphisms. The Boran, an East African zebu, has an acrocentric Y chromosome typical of Bos indicus . The southern African sanga breeds have a submetacentric Y chromosome typical of Bos taurus . Frequencies of four DNA markers support the hypothesis that the Tuli, a southern African sanga, had taurine ancestors and the Boran had both taurine and indicine ancestors. Frequencies for several protein polymorphisms strongly suggest that southern African sangas have more in common with taurine than with indicine breeds, while East African zebus are an admixture of African taurine and Asian indicine breeds.     

Chemically induced predator avoidance behaviour in the burrowing bivalve Macoma balthica

The responses of the burrowing bivalves Macoma balthica and Cerastoderma edule to chemical cues emitted by feeding shore crabs Carcinus maenas were investigated. M. balthica held in the laboratory and exposed to chemical signals in effluent water discharging from tanks containing C. maenas fed 20 M. balthica day^− 1 reacted by increasing their burial depths from approximately 30 mm to depths of > 60 mm, over a period of several days. When the signal was removed the bivalves gradually returned to their original depth over 5 days. C. edule similarly exposed to effluent from crabs feeding on conspecifics showed no response. In an attempt to identify the signal inducing this burrowing response, M. balthica were exposed to a variety of chemical signals. Crabs fed M. balthica elicited the strongest response, followed by crabs fed C. edule. There were also small responses to effluent from crabs fed on fish, crabs previously fed on M. balthica and to crab faeces, but no responses to starved crabs, crushed M. balthica, or controls. We conclude that increased burrowing depth of M. balthica is induced by some as yet unidentified chemical cue produced by feeding crabs and is strongest when the crabs were fed on M. balthica. Unexpectedly, neither the presence of crabs themselves, nor of damaged conspecifics, was effective in eliciting a burrowing response. The mortality rates of M. balthica and C. edule selected by crabs when burrowed at normal depths and after exposure to effluent from feeding crabs were different. Crabs selected 1.5 times more C. edule than M. balthica when both species were burrowed at their normal depths, but 15 times more after the tanks had been exposed to effluent from feeding crabs for 5 days. The burrowing response of M. balthica thus appears to reduce mortality significantly by displacing predation pressure on to the more accessible C. edule.     

Mandible wear in the carabid beetle Pterostichus melanarius in relation to diet and burrowing behaviour

The effects of food texture and burrowing on mandible wear in the predatory carabid beetle Pterostichus melanarius Illiger were investigated by feeding adults soft or hard food in jars with or without soil. Both the incisor cusp (mandible tip) and cutting surface of the mandibles erode more in response to the combination of hard food and burrowing than to hard food alone. Females were found to erode their mandibles more than males in the hard-food-only treatment, whereas males wore down their mandibles more than females in the soil-only treatment. Female P. melanarius collected in a cereal field contained signficantly more solid food items compared with males. Differences in behaviour apparently resulted in differential wear patterns between the sexes.It is shown that the process of mandible wear in P. melanarius will result in worn mandibles in their first year as adults. However, mandible size of field-sampled females were found to be best correlated with females (of similar age) in the experiment exhibiting extensive wear (foraged hard food and burrowed in soil). The mandibles of field-sampled males were similar to those of males in the hard-food-only and the soil-only treatments, which showed only slight to moderate wear. The influence of mandible wear on fecundity and survival in P. melanarius as well as in other carabid species is discussed.

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Usure des mandibules du carabe, Pterostichus melanarius Illiger, en fonction de l'alimentation et du comportement de fouissage

Résumé L'analyse de l'influence de la texture des aliments et du fouissage, sur l'usure des mandibules a été effectuée en nourrissant P. melanarius avec des aliments de différentes duretés dans des récipients contenant ou non du sol. Les aliments durs seuls usent moins le bord incisif (extrémité de la mandibule) et la surface coupante, que leur association avec le fouissage. En présence exclusive d'aliments durs, les femelles avaient érodé plus vite leurs mandibules que les mâles, tandis que chez ceux-ci le fouissage seul les avaient usé plus vite que chez les femelles. Des femelles récoltées dans un champ de céréales contenaient plus d'aliments durs que les mâles. Les différences de comportement avaient provoqué apparemment des types d'usure différents suivant les sexes.Les adultes usent leurs mandibules au cours de leur première année de vie imaginale. Cependant, la taille des mandibules des femelles échantillonnées dans la nature correspondait mieux à celle des femelles (de même âge) provenant des expériences ayant provoqué une forte usure (aliment dur et fouissage du sol). Les mandibules des mâles échantillonnés présentaient seulement une usure modérée et ressemblaient à celles des mâles ayant consommé soit des aliments durs, soit foui le sol. La discussion a traité des relations entre l'usure des mandibules, la fécondité et la longévité de P. melanarius et d'autres espèces de carabes.

     

Summer quiescent behaviour of the millipede Ommatoiulus moreleti (Julida: Julidae)

The millipede Ommatoiulus moreleti (Lucas), (Julidae) originates in the south-west Iberian Peninsula, and has successfully invaded parts of southern Australia with hot, dry summers. The species is inactive in the field during summer but is active in autumn, particularly following rains, and in spring. There is some activity in winter. In this paper, the temperature and humidity determinants of seasonal behaviour are analysed, in particular the conditions causing summer quiescence.
Experiments using a millipede treadmill apparatus at different temperatures at 95% RH showed an almost linear response of locomotor activity with temperature between 3 and 21°C, but when the temperature was increased to 28°C, the millipedes became quiescent. Activity could he restored by reducing the temperature.
When the millipedes were exposed to 45% RH there was comparatively little activity at any temperature. Field evidence indicates ii rapid breaking of quiescence with surface moisture
The success of O. moreleti in invading the surface-litter habitat in South Australia can he explained by its ability to avoid desiccation; its adaptations include its quiescent behaviour during summer and its ability to moult from a winter (reproductive) to B summer (non-reproductive) form.     

Solutes and succulence in southern African mistletoes

The inorganic ion and organic solute composition of Tapinanthus oleifolius (Loranthaceae) and Viscum rotundifolium (Viscaceae) growing on various host trees in Namibia were investigated. Organic osmolytes accounted for 22.8–45.1% of the total solutes determined in leaves of the mistletoes parasitizing Acacia nebrownii, Catophractes alexandri, Grewia flava and Ziziphus mucronata. On other hosts (Acacia karroo, Euphorbia virosa, Salvadora persica and Tamarix usneoides) T. oleifolius showed distinct succulence with increasing leaf age, with leaves more than 3 mm thick on E. virosa. In the more succulent leaves (> 1.1 kg H₂O m^–2 leaf area) organic solutes were only of minor importance. Water content per leaf area was significantly correlated with chloride content per leaf area, suggesting that succulence served as a means to keep ion concentration at a physiological tolerable level. At whole plant levels 93.7% of the total sodium of the mistletoe bush was located in leaves thicker than 1 mm for T. oleifolius parasitizing Tamarix usneoides. This pronounced sequestration of sodium in older leaves as well as the high variability of the K/Na ratio in various parts of the parasite-host system point to highly selective ion distribution processes in this association.     

The ecological significance of burrowing behaviour in the toad (Bufo viridis)

Summary The burrowing behaviour of the toad Bufo viridis was studied in the laboratory on soil containing 11–13% moisture. These toads usually excavate shallow, temporary burrows from which they emerge intermittently. Time spent subsurface increases with rising ambient temperature in the range of 18–30° C. In these conditions, water loss is effectively reduced and a new water balance is achieved. On return to water access, after two months on soil, the toads rapidly regain only that amount of water lost previously. It is concluded that this temperature-sensitive burrowing behaviour is an important factor in these animals' successful survival in semi-arid conditions.     

Renal weights in the southern African black population

Renal weights of 430 adult black subjects coming to medicolegal autopsy at the Diepkloof State Mortuary, a large urban area southwest of Johannesburg, South Africa, were analyzed. The subjects were from 10 southern African black ethnic groups-Zulu, Sotho, Tswana, Xhosa, Shangaan, Swazi, Venda, Ndebele, Kalanga, and Malawi. The aims of the study were: 1) to ascertain the anatomical "norm" as it pertains to renal weights in this diverse population group; 2) to formulate standard reference tables that might be of use to the practicing pathologist in the southern African arena; 3) to provide a range of values that take into account the variables of age, sex, race, body weight, and body height; and 4) to provide a standard of comparison with anthropological and anatomical studies conducted on North American black, North American Caucasian, Indian subcontinent, Burmese, and Jamaican population groups. In each of the 430 subjects, age, sex, ethnic group, supine body length, body weight, individual left and right renal weights, and causes of death were noted. The latter were divided into 6 categories: 1) penetrating incised wounds; 2) multiple injuries; 3) gunshot wounds; 4) craniocerebral injuries; 5) various miscellaneous nonnatural causes of death; and 6) natural causes of death. The above variables were analyzed by computer and compared with respect to renal weights. No statistically significant differences were observed between the sexes or the age groups.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Studies on an Indian polydesmoid millipede Streptogonopus phipsoni Life cycle and swarming behaviour of the larvae

The adults of Streptogonopus phipsoni (Pocock), an Indian polydesmoid millipede, emerge from the soil at the onset of the monsoon and mate. Eggs are laid in the soil and the adults die. The larvae leave the soil at stadium III and, apart from moulting periods, remain on the surface until the end of the monsoon. The larvae are aggregated in swarms, usually consisting of several hundred individuals. They are active on open ground, including metalled roads, during daylight, but usually spend the night in an inactive state under cover of stones or vegetation. If a swarm is disturbed, the individuals scatter but later reaggregate.
Laboratory experiments show that the larvae are sensitive to light even though they lack eyes, and if given a choice spend more time in the light than the dark. Just before and after moulting however they spend more time in the dark than in the light.
Experiments were carried out on the reactions of the larvae to aquatic suspensions of benzaldeyde, since this substance is related to components of the exudate of the repugnatorial glands; strong concentrations (10^-1) repelled the larvae, whilst weak concentrations (10^-6) attracted them. It is suggested that swarms may be dispersed or reaggregated by the effects of variations in concentration of components of the exudates. The benefits to the larvae which may result from swarming are discussed.     

Zoogeography of the southern African ascidian fauna

Aim To describe the biogeography of the ascidian fauna of southern Africa, to compare the results obtained with those reported for other fauna and flora of the same region, and to speculate about the origin of ascidians in the region. Location Southern Africa extending over 4000 km from Mossâmedes (15° S–12° E) to Inhaca Island (26°30′ S–33° E), including Vema Seamount (31°40′ S–8 °20′ E), Amsterdam‐Saint Paul Islands (38° S–77°30′ E) and the Tristan‐Gough Islands (38° S–12°20′ W). Methods We constructed a presence/absence matrix of 168 species for 26 biogeographical divisions, 21 classical biogeographical regions described by Briggs (Marine zoogeography, McGraw‐Hill, New York, 1974) and five provinces within the southern African region. We considered the following limits and divisions into provinces for the southern African region: Namibia, Namaqua, Agulhas and Natal as proposed by Branch et al. (Two oceans. A guide to the marine life of southern Africa, David Philip Publishers, 1994), and the West Wind Drift Islands province (WWD) according to Briggs (Global biogeography, Elsevier Health Sciences, Amsterdam, 1995). To examine the biogeographical structure, species and divisions were classified using cluster analysis (based on UPGMA as the aggregation algorithm) with the Bray–Curtis index of similarity. This classification was combined with MDS ordination. Main conclusions Four main groups were obtained from the analysis of affinities among species: (1) species present in the WWD, separated by a high percentage of endemisms and a low number of species with a southern African distribution. Moreover, in the light of the species distribution and the results of further analysis, which revealed that they are completely separated and not at all related to the southern African region, it appears that there are no close relationships among the different islands and seamounts of the West Wind Drift Island province. This province was therefore removed from the remaining analyses; (2) species with a wide distribution; (3) species of colder waters present in Namaqua and Agulhas provinces, a transitional temperate area in which gradual mixing and replacement of species negate previous hypotheses on the existence of a marked distributional break at Cape of Good Hope; (4) species of warmer waters related to Natal province. The classification into biogeographical components was dominated by the endemic (47%), Indo‐Pacific (25%) and cosmopolitan (13%) components. The analysis of affinities among biogeographical areas separated Namibia from the rest of the southern African provinces and showed that it was related to some extent to the Antarctic region because of the cold‐temperate character of the province and the low sampling effort; Namaqua, Agulhas and Natal were grouped together and found to be closely related to the Indo‐West Pacific region. In general, our results were consistent with those obtained for other southern African marine invertebrates. The frequency distribution of solitary/colonial strategies among provinces confirmed the domination of colonial organisms in tropical regions and solitary organisms in colder regions. Finally, we speculate that the southern African ascidian fauna mainly comprises Indo‐Pacific, Antarctic and eastern Atlantic ascidians.     

The control of burrowing and the migratory behaviour of Donax denticulatus (Bivalvia: Tellinacea)

Donax denticulatus burrows in a similar manner to other infaunal bivalves, but also reacts to stimulation by activity and so proved to be suitable material for experiments on the control of locomotion. Tactile responses of the foot initiate burrowing and pedal stretch receptors control the duration of each digging cycle. Prevention of adduction of the valves, removal of ligament or cardinal hinge teeth, had little effect on burrowing and it is suggested that part of the digging cycle is programmed within the nervous system without peripheral feedback. Experiments on migratory behaviour are discussed and indicate that no intrinsic mechanism is required for its control beyond the adaptation of behavioural responses, common to most bivalves, to different physical conditions.     

Phylogenetic relationships in the millipede family Julidae

A phylogenetic analysis of 40 species (22 genera) of the Palaearctic millipede family Julidae was made based on partial sequences of the mitochondrial 16S rRNA (16S) gene and the nuclear 28S rRNA (28S) gene, respectively. The two data sets (16S rDNA and 28S rDNA) were analysed individually and in combination using direct optimization as implemented in POY. The 16S rDNA and the 28S rDNA sequences vary from 410 to 449 bp and from 467 to 525 bp in length, respectively. All searches were performed under six different gap opening costs, an extension gap cost of 1, and a substitution cost of 2. Incongruence length difference values were used to select the preferred tree. The order Julida was recovered as monophyletic under all weight sets. The family Julidae was recovered as monophyletic except under one weight set where the genus Nepalmatoiulus is sister to all other Julida. Within Julidae, a clade of Paectophyllini + Calyptophyllini is sister to all others on the preferred tree but this relationship is not robust. A hitherto unrecognized clade of (South) east Asian genera (Anaulaciulus and Nepalmatoiulus) was recovered under five weight sets. Another “new” robust clade (Oncoiulini + Schizophyllini) is congruent with a hitherto unrecognized complex morphological character. Further clades recovered within the Julidae partly conflict with the accepted classification, which is only to a limited extent based on phylogenetic arguments.     

The giant squid Architeuthis in southern African waters

Three specimens of the rare giant squid (genus Architeuthis , 18 nominal species) are described from the waters around southern Africa. Consideration of their internal and external morphology, including beaks, radula, statocyst and statolith give no reason to suppose that the three specimens do not pertain to the same species. A standardized data collection form and a summary of existing morphometric data are presented for the first time and the morphology and systematics of the genus are discussed. The value of various systematic characters is examined and certain guidelines are proposed, with an appeal for a more scientific approach to Architeuthis studies.
Features of the internal anatomy, including the female reproductive tract, are described and illustrated and the beak dimensions are used to evaluate existing regression formulae for beak and body parameters. The statocyst and statolith are described and illustrated in full, the statolith for the first time, and are compared with those of other squids.
The value of recent data from trawl-caught specimens, as well as indirect evidence, is cited to replace speculation in discussions on distribution and habitat. Our specimens suggest that the waters off the south-western coast of Africa may be one of the natural habitats of Architeurhis , during both feeding and spawning periods of the life cycle.     

Hunting behaviour in West African forest leopards

The leopard (Panthera pardus) is a major predator of mammals within the rainforest ecosystem of West Africa. Most of the available information on leopard hunting behaviour comes from studies conducted in open savannah habitats, while little is known about forest leopards. Our radio‐tracking data and scat analysis show that forest leopards differ in various ways from the savannah populations. Forest leopards are diurnal and crepuscular hunters who follow the activity pattern of their prey species. They exhibit seasonal differences in activity patterns, and they develop highly individualized prey preferences. These findings challenge the widespread notion of leopards as opportunistic nocturnal predators.