Altered regulation of glycogen metabolism by vasopressin and phenylephrine in hepatocytes from insulin-resistant obese (fa/fa) rats. Role of protein kinase C.

The hormonal control of glycogen synthase and phosphorylase interconversion was investigated in hepatocytes isolated from lean and genetically obese (fa/fa) rats. In cells from obese animals, the inactivation of synthase by 4 beta-phorbol 12 beta-myristate 13 alpha-acetate (PMA), phospholipase C, vasopressin and the alpha 1-adrenergic agonist phenylephrine was markedly impaired, and the property of PMA to counteract phosphorylase activation by phenylephrine was attenuated. The maximal response of phosphorylase activation to phenylephrine and vasopressin was increased in obese-rat hepatocytes, but the sensitivity to these hormones was similar to that in lean-rat hepatocytes. These observations indicate that the defect in protein kinase C that we reported previously in heart of insulin-resistant fa/fa rats [van de Werve, Zaninetti, Lang, Vallotton & Jeanrenaud (1987) Diabetes 36, 310-319] is probably also expressed in liver.     

Decreased responsiveness of gluconeogenesis to the modulation by sulfonylureas in hepatocytes isolated from obese (fa/fa) Zucker rats

The influence of the hypoglycemic agent glipizide (0-100 microM) on the rate of gluconeogenesis from lactate, as well as on the levels of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate, has been investigated in hepatocytes isolated from genetically obese (fa/fa) Zucker rats and from their corresponding lean (Fa/-) littermates. As compared to lean rat hepatocytes, liver cells isolated from obese animals showed a lower rate of basal gluconeogenesis (0.9 +/- 0.2 vs 5.4 +/- 0.5 micromol of lactate converted to glucose/g cell x 30 min, n=4) and higher levels of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (11.5 +/- 1.0 vs 5.9 +/- 0.4 nmol/g cell, n=8-9). In lean rat hepatocytes, the presence of glipizide in the incubation medium caused a dose-dependent inhibition of the rate of lactate conversion to glucose (maximal inhibition=46%; EC50 value=26 microM), and simultaneously raised the cellular content of fructose-2,6-bisphosphate (maximal increment=40%; EC50 value=10 microM). In contrast, in hepatocytes isolated from obese rats, the inhibition of gluconeogenesis and the increment in fructose-2,6-bisphosphate levels elicited by glipizide were significantly reduced (maximal effects of 22 and 13%, respectively). Similarly, the activation of glycogen phosphorylase and the increase in hexose 6-phosphate levels in response to glipizide were less marked in obese rat hepatocytes than in liver cells isolated from lean animals. These results demonstrate that the efficacy of sulfonylureas as inhibitors of hepatic gluconeogenesis is reduced in the genetically obese (fa/fa) Zucker rat.     

Altered liver glycogen metabolism in fed genetically obese mice.

The cyclic AMP and glycogen concentrations and the activities of phosphorylase kinase, phosphorylase a and glycogen synthase a were not different in livers from lean or ob/ob mice despite increased plasma glucose and insulin in the obese group. The liver water content was decreased by 10% in the obese mice. In hepatocytes isolated from lean mice and incubated with increasing glucose concentrations (14-112 mM), a sequential inactivation of phosphorylase and activation of glycogen synthase was observed. In hepatocytes from obese mice the inactivation of phosphorylase was not followed by an activation of synthase. The inactivation of phosphorylase occurred more rapidly and was followed by an activation of synthase in hepatocytes isolated from both groups of mice when in the incubation medium Na+ was replaced by K+ or when Ca2+ was omitted and 2.5 mM-EGTA included. The inactivation of phosphorylase and activation of synthase were not different in broken-liver-cell preparations from lean and obese animals. The re-activation of phosphorylase in liver filtrates in the presence of 0.1 microM-cyclic AMP and MgATP was inhibited by about 70% by EGTA and stimulated by Ca2+ and was always greater in preparations from ob/ob mice. The apparent paradox between the impairment of glycogen metabolism in isolated liver preparations and the situation in vivo in obese mice is discussed.     

Studies on the alpha-adrenergic activation of hepatic glucose output. I. Studies on the alpha-adrenergic activation of phosphorylase and gluconeogenesis and inactivation of glycogen synthase in isolated rat liver parenchymal cells.

Epinephrine and the alpha-adrenergic agonist phenylephrine activated phosphorylase, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis from lactate in a dose-dependent manner in isolated rat liver parenchymal cells. The half-maximally active dose of epinephrine was 10-7 M and of phenylephrine was 10(-6) M. These effects were blocked by alpha-adrenergic antagonists including phenoxybenzamine, but were largely unaffected by beta-adrenergic antagonists including propranolol. Epinephrine caused a transient 2-fold elevation of adenosine 3':5'-monophosphate (cAMP) which was abolished by propranolol and other beta blockers, but was unaffected by phenoxybenzamine and other alpha blockers. Phenoxybenzamine and propranolol were shown to be specific for their respective adrenergic receptors and to not affect the actions of glucagon or exogenous cAMP. Neither epinephrine (10-7 M), phenylephrine (10-5 M), nor glucagon (10-7 M) inactivated glycogen synthase in liver cells from fed rats. When the glycogen synthase activity ratio (-glucose 6-phosphate/+ glucose 6-phosphate) was increased from 0.09 to 0.66 by preincubation of such cells with 40 mM glucose, these agents substantially inactivated the enzyme. Incubation of hepatocytes from fed rats resulted in glycogen depletion which was correlated with an increase in the glycogen synthase activity ratio and a decrease in phosphorylase alpha activity. In hepatocytes from fasted animals, the glycogen synthase activity ratio was 0.32 +/- 0.03, and epinephrine, glucagon, and phenylephrine were able to lower this significantly. The effects of epinephrine and phenylephrine on the enzyme were blocked by phenoxybenzamine, but were largely unaffected by propranolol. Maximal phosphorylase activation in hepatocytes from fasted rats incubated with 10(-5) M phenylephrine preceded the maximal inactivation of glycogen synthase. Addition of glucose rapidly reduced, in a dose-dependent manner, both basal and phenylephrine-elevated phosphorylase alpha activity in hepatocytes prepared from fasted rats. Glucose also increased the glycogen synthase activity ratio, but this effect lagged behind the change in phosphorylase. Phenylephrine (10-5 M) and glucagon (5 x 10(-10) M) decreased by one-half the fall in phosphoryalse alpha activity seen with 10 mM glucose and markedly suppressed the elevation of glycogen synthase activity. The following conclusions are drawn from these findings. (a) The effects of epinephrine and phenylephrine on carbohydrate metabolism in rat liver parenchymal cells are mediated predominantly by alpha-adrenergic receptors. (b) Stimulation of these receptors by epinephrine or phenylephrine results in activation of phosphorylase and gluconeogenesis and inactivation of glycogen synthase by mechanisms not involving an increase in cellular cAMP. (c) Activation of beta-adrenergic receptors by epinephrine leads to the accumulation of cAMP, but this is associated with minimal activation of phosphorylase or inactivation of glycogen synthase...     

Increased sensitivity of glycogen synthesis to phosphorylase-a and impaired expression of the glycogen-targeting protein R6 in hepatocytes from insulin-resistant Zucker fa/fa rats

Hepatic insulin resistance in the leptin-receptor defective Zucker fa/fa rat is associated with impaired glycogen synthesis and increased activity of phosphorylase-a. We investigated the coupling between phosphorylase-a and glycogen synthesis in hepatocytes from fa/fa rats by modulating the concentration of phosphorylase-a. Treatment of hepatocytes from fa/fa rats and Fa/? controls with a selective phosphorylase inhibitor caused depletion of phosphorylase-a, activation of glycogen synthase and stimulation of glycogen synthesis. The flux-control coefficient of phosphorylase on glycogen synthesis was glucose dependent and at 10 mm glucose was higher in fa/fa than Fa/? hepatocytes. There was an inverse correlation between the activities of glycogen synthase and phosphorylase-a in both fa/fa and Fa/? hepatocytes. However, fa/fa hepatocytes had a higher activity of phosphorylase-a, for a corresponding activity of glycogen synthase. This defect was, in part, normalized by expression of the glycogen-targeting protein, PTG. Hepatocytes from fa/fa rats had normal expression of the glycogen-targeting proteins G(L) and PTG but markedly reduced expression of R6. Expression of R6 protein was increased in hepatocytes from Wistar rats after incubation with leptin and insulin. Diminished hepatic R6 expression in the leptin-receptor defective fa/fa rat may be a contributing factor to the elevated phosphorylase activity and/or its high control strength on glycogen synthesis.     

Modulation of gluconeogenesis by epinephrine in hepatocytes isolated from genetically obese (fa/fa) Zucker rats

The obese (fa/fa) Zucker rat shows an impaired sympathetic tone which is accompanied by an altered thermogenesis and changes in both lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. In this work, we have investigated the regulatory effects of epinephrine on the rate of gluconeogenesis from a mixture of [(14)C]lactate/pyruvate, in hepatocytes isolated from obese (fa/fa) rats and their lean (Fa/-) littermates. Epinephrine caused a dose-dependent stimulation of the rate of [(14)C]glucose formation in both obese and lean rat hepatocytes, the maximal rates being five- and twofold higher than the corresponding basal values (0.50 +/- 0.06 and 1.96 +/- 0.15 micromol of lactate converted to glucose/g of cell x 20 min, respectively). No significant differences were found between the calculated half-maximal effective concentrations (EC(50)) for epinephrine in obese and lean rat liver cells. The stimulation of gluconeogenesis by epinephrine was accompanied by a decrease in the cellular concentration of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate, and an inactivation of both pyruvate kinase and 6-phosphofructo 2-kinase, to similar extents in both types of hepatocytes. Epinephrine also significantly raised the hepatocyte content of cyclic AMP, with about a twofold increase at a saturating concentration of the catecholamine (1 microM), in both lean and obese rat liver cells. However, at suboptimal concentrations of epinephrine, the rise in cyclic AMP levels was significantly less marked in obese than in lean rat hepatocytes. Nevertheless, no significant differences were found in either the affinity or the number of beta-adrenergic receptors, in radioligand binding studies carried out in liver plasma membranes obtained from obese and lean Zucker rats. In conclusion, compared to the corresponding basal values, the response of gluconeogenesis from lactate to the stimulatory effect of epinephrine is higher in obese (fa/fa) than in lean (Fa/-) Zucker rat hepatocytes, with no significant differences in the calculated EC(50) values for this hormone. This occurs in spite of an apparent decreased sensitivity of the adenylate cyclase system to the stimulatory effect of epinephrine in obese rat liver cells.     

Effects of lithium ions on glycogen synthase and phosphorylase in rat hepatocytes

Incubation of hepatocytes from fasted rats with LiCl provoked a concentration- and time-dependent activation of glycogen synthase. This effect was observed in the absence of glucose in the incubation medium. No changes in the intracellular concentrations of ATP or glucose-6-phosphate were detected. Lithium was also able to activate glycogen synthase in the absence of extracellular calcium. If hepatocytes were incubated with lithium and insulin, an additive effect of both agents on glycogen synthase activity was observed. LiCl was also effective in activating the enzyme in hepatocytes obtained from fed rats. When hepatocytes were incubated with [33P]phosphate and then treated with LiCl, a decrease in the amount of [32P]phosphate incorporated in the enzyme was observed. This dephosphorylation affected two CNBr fragments of the enzyme (CB-2 and CB-1), suggesting that several phosphorylation sites were involved. Lithium was also able to activate glycogen phosphorylase from both fasted and fed rats. Phosphorylase activation was concentration- and time-dependent, either in the presence or absence of calcium in the incubation medium. These findings demonstrate that although lithium appears to mimic the effects of insulin on glycogen synthase activity, its mechanism of action must be different from that of the hormone.     

Hepatic glycogen synthase phosphatase and phosphorylase phosphatase activities are increased in obese (fa/fa) hyperinsulinemic Zucker rats: effects of glyburide administration

The chronically hyperinsulinemic Zucker fatty rat, with peripheral insulin resistance and glucose intolerance, represents a model of noninsulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). These animals have elevated hepatic glycogen levels. Hepatic levels of synthase phosphatase and phosphorylase phosphatase, which are diminished in the IDDM rat, were markedly increased in the obese rats. Glyburide, a sulfonylurea used in treatment of NIDDM, resulted in reduced levels of glycemia and increased insulin levels in Zucker rats. Hepatic glycogen levels were increased, as was the activation of glycogen synthase, although there were no effects of drug administration on synthase phosphatase or phosphorylase phosphatase activities. G6P levels were increased by glyburide in lean rats but not in obese animals. These effects of glyburide on liver glycogen metabolism are accounted for via potentiation of the glycogenic effects of insulin.     

Regulation of synthase phosphatase and phosphorylase phosphatase in rat liver.

Using substrates purified from liver, the apparent Km values of synthase phosphatase ([UDPglucose--glycogen glucosyltransferase-D]phosphohydrolase, EC 3.1.3.42) and phosphorylase phosphatase (phosphorylase a phosphohydrolase, EC 3.1.3.17) were found to be 0.7 and 60 units/ml respectively. The maximal velocity of phosphorylase phosphatase was more than a 100 times that of synthase phosphatase. In adrenalectomized, fasted animals there was a complete loss of synthase phosphatase but only a slight decrease in phosphorylase phosphatase when activity was measured using endogenous substrates in a concentrated liver extract. When assayed under optimal conditions with purified substrates, both activities were present but had decreased to very low levels. Mixing experiments indicated that synthase D present in the extract of adrenalectomized fasted animals was altered such that it was no longer a substrate for synthase phosphatase from normal rats. Phosphorylase a substrate on the other hand was unaltered and readily converted. When glucose was given in vivo, no change in percent of synthase in the I form was seen in adrenalectomized rats but the percent of phosphorylase in the a form was reduced. Precipitation of protein from an extract of normal fed rats with ethanol produced a large activation of phosphorylase phosphatase activity with no corresponding increase in synthase phosphatase activity. Despite the low phosphorylase phosphatase present in extracts of adrenalectomized fasted animals, ethanol precipitation increased activity to the same high level as obtained in the normal fed rats. Synthase phosphatase and phosphorylase phosphatase activities were also decreased in normal fasted, diabetic fed and fasted, and adrenalectomized fed rats. Both enzymes recovered in the same manner temporally after oral glucose administration to adrenalectomized, fasted rats. These results suggest an integrated regulatory mechanism for the two phosphatase.     

Glucose refractoriness of beta-cells from fed fa/fa rats is ameliorated by nonesterified fatty acids

The aim of this study was to characterize the glucose responsiveness of individual beta-cells from fa/fa rats under ad libitum feeding conditions. Enlarged intact islets from fed fa/fa rats had a compressed insulin response curve to glucose compared with smaller islets. Size-sorted islets from obese rats yielded beta-cells whose glucose responsiveness was assessed by reverse hemolytic plaque assay to determine whether glucose refractoriness was caused by a decreased number of responsive cells or output per cell. In addition, the effects of palmitic acid on glucose-stimulated insulin secretion were assessed because of evidence that nonesterified fatty acids have acute beneficial effects. Two- to threefold more beta-cells from >250 microm diameter (large) islets than <125 microm diameter (small) or lean islets responded to low glucose. Increasing the glucose (8.3-16.5 mM) induced a >10-fold increase in recruitment of active cells from small islets, compared with only a 2.6-fold increase in large islets. This refractoriness was partially reversed by preincubation of the cells in low glucose for 2 h. In addition, secretion per cell of the large islet beta-cell population was significantly reduced compared with lean beta-cells, so that the overall response capacity of large but not small islet beta-cells was significantly reduced at high glucose. Therefore, continued near-normal function of the beta-cells from small islets of fa/fa rats seems crucial for glucose responsiveness. Incubation of beta-cells from large islets with palmitic acid normalized the secretory capacity to glucose mainly by increasing recruitment and secondarily by increasing secretion per cell. In conclusion, these studies demonstrate refractoriness to glucose of beta-cells from large islets of fa/fa rats under ad libitum feeding conditions. When acutely exposed to nonesterified fatty acids, islets from fa/fa rats have a potentiated insulin response despite chronic elevation of plasma lipids in vivo.     

Glycogen synthesis from glucose and fructose in hepatocytes from diabetic rats

In rat hepatocytes, the basal glycogen synthase activation state is decreased in the fed and diabetic states, whereas glycogen phosphorylase a activity decreases only in diabetes. Diabetes practically abolishes the time- and dose-dependent activation of glycogen synthase to glucose especially in the fed state. Fructose, however, is still able to activate this enzyme. Glycogen phosphorylase response to both sugars is operative in all cases. Cell incubation with the combination of 20 mM glucose plus 3 mM fructose produces a great activation of glycogen synthase and a potentiated glycogen deposition in both normal and diabetic conditions. Using radiolabeled sugars, we demonstrate that this enhanced glycogen synthesis is achieved from both glucose and fructose even in the diabetic state. Therefore, the presence of fructose plays a permissive role in glycogen synthesis from glucose in diabetic animals. Glucose and fructose increase the intracellular concentration of glucose 6-phosphate and fructose reduces the concentration of ATP. There is a close correlation between the ratio of the intracellular concentrations of glucose 6-phosphate and ATP (G6-P/ATP) and the activation state of glycogen synthase in hepatocytes from both normal and diabetic animals. However, for any given value of the G6-P/ATP ratio, the activation state of glycogen synthase in diabetic animals is always lower than that of normal animals. This suggests that the system that activates glycogen synthase (synthase phosphatase activity) is impaired in the diabetic state. The permissive effect of fructose is probably exerted through its capacity to increase the G6-P/ATP ratio which may partially increase synthase phosphatase activity, rendering glycogen synthase active.     

Glucokinase overexpression restores glucose utilization and storage in cultured hepatocytes from male Zucker diabetic fatty rats.

Zucker diabetic fatty rats develop type 2 diabetes concomitantly with peripheral insulin resistance. Hepatocytes from these rats and their control lean counterparts have been cultured, and a number of key parameters of glucose metabolism have been determined. Glucokinase activity was 4.5-fold lower in hepatocytes from diabetic rats than in hepatocytes from healthy ones. In contrast, hexokinase activity was about 2-fold higher in hepatocytes from diabetic animals than in healthy ones. Glucose-6-phosphatase activity was not significantly different. Despite the altered ratios of glucokinase to hexokinase activity, intracellular glucose 6-phosphate concentrations were similar in the two types of cells when they where incubated with 1-25 mM glucose. However, glycogen levels and glycogen synthase activity ratio were lower in hepatocytes from diabetic animals. Total pyruvate kinase activity and its activity ratio as well as fructose 2,6-bisphosphate concentration and lactate production were also lower in cells from diabetic animals. All of these data indicate that glucose metabolism is clearly impaired in hepatocytes from Zucker diabetic fatty rats. Glucokinase overexpression using adenovirus restored glucose metabolism in diabetic hepatocytes. In glucokinase-overexpressing cells, glucose 6-phosphate levels increased. Moreover, glycogen deposition was greatly enhanced due to the activation of glycogen synthase. Pyruvate kinase was also activated, and fructose-2,6-bisphosphate concentration and lactate production were increased in glucokinase-overexpressing diabetic hepatocytes. Overexpression of hexokinase I did not increase glycogen deposition. In conclusion, hepatocytes from Zucker diabetic fatty rats showed depressed glycogen and glycolytic metabolism, but glucokinase overexpression improved their glucose utilization and storage.     

Multiple defects occur in the guanine nucleotide regulatory protein system in liver plasma membranes of obese (fa/fa) but not lean (Fa/Fa) Zucker rats: loss of functional Gi and abnormal Gs function

Hepatocyte membranes from both lean and obese Zucker rats exhibited adenylate cyclase activity that could be stimulated by glucagon, forskolin, NaF and elevated concentrations of p[NH]ppG. In membranes from lean animals, functional Gi was detected by the ability of low concentrations of p[NH]ppG to inhibit forskolin-activated adenylate cyclase. This activity was abolished by treatment of hepatocytes with either pertussis toxin or the phorbol ester TPA, prior to making membranes for assay of adenylate cyclase activity. In hepatocyte membranes from obese animals no functional Gi activity was detected. Quantitative immunoblotting, using an antibody able to detect the alpha subunit of Gi, showed that hepatocyte plasma membranes from both lean and obese Zucker rats had similar amounts of Gi-alpha subunit. This was 6.2 pmol/mg plasma membrane for lean and 6.5 pmol/mg plasma membrane for obese animals. Using thiol pre-activated pertussis toxin and [32P]-NAD+, similar degrees of labelling of the 40 kDa alpha subunit of Gi were found using plasma membranes of both lean and obese Zucker rats. We suggest that liver plasma membranes from obese Zucker rats express an inactive Gi alpha subunit. Thus lesions in liver Gi functioning are seen in insulin-resistant obese rats and in alloxan- and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats which also show resistance as regards the acute actions of insulin. Liver plasma membranes of obese animals also showed an impairment in the coupling of glucagon receptors to Gs-controlled adenylate cyclase, with the Kd values for activation by glucagon being 17.3 and 126 nM for lean and obese animals respectively. Membranes from obese animals also showed a reduced ability for high concentration of p[NH]ppG to activate adenylate cyclase. The use of [32P]-NAD+ and thiol-preactivated cholera toxin to label the 43 kDa and 52 kDa forms of the alpha-subunit of Gs showed that a reduced labelling occurred using liver plasma membranes from obese animals. It is suggested that abnormalities in the levels of expression of primarily the 52 kDa form of alpha-Gs may give rise to the abnormal coupling between glucagon receptors and adenylate cyclase in liver membranes from obese (fa/fa) Zucker rats.     

Changes of Islet Size and Islet Size Distribution Resulting from Protein-Malnutrition in Lean (Fa/Fa) and Obese (fa/fa) Zucker Rats

TSE, ELIZABETH O, FRANCINE M GREGOIRE, BRIGITTE REUSENS, CLAUDE REMACLE, JOSEPH J HOET, PATRICIA R JOHNSON, JUDITH S STERN. Changes of islet size and islet size distribution resulting from protein malnutrition in lean (Fa/Fa) and obese (fa/fa) Zucker rats. Potential alterations in islet size and islet size distribution resulting from protein malnutrition were studied in lean (Fa/Fa) and obese (fa/fa) Zucker rats. The purpose was to investigate whether the distribution of enlarged islets in obese rats was altered by low-protein feeding. Four-week-old, male, lean and obese Zucker rats were fed either a diet containing 20% (w/w) protein (control diet) or a diet containing 5% (w/w) protein (low-protein diet) for 3 weeks. Pancreata were dissected at autopsy and immunostained for insulin. Islet size and distribution were determined by morphometric analysis. Body-weight gain, food intake, and serum insulin and glucose were also measured. After 3 weeks on the diets, serum insulin was significantly lower in both lean (-75%) and obese (-54%) rats fed low protein compared with that in controls. However, obese rats were still hyperinsulinemic compared with lean rats. Protein malnutrition resulted in a shift in distribution of islets to smaller size both in lean and in obese rats, with an increase in the population of small islets (100 μm²) and a decrease in the population of large islets (>20,000 μ;m²). In lean and obese rats fed low protein, β-cell weight was significantly lower, B cell volume fraction tended to decrease, and islet number per section area was significantly elevated when compared with controls. Taken together, these results show that protein deficiency alters the endocrine pancreas in both lean and obese Zucker rats. Although the decrease in islet size and the shift in distribution to smaller islets most likely contribute to the decrease in serum insulin concentration, these changes appear insufficient to normalize hyperinsulinemia in the obese Zucker rat.     

Acute effects of exercise on circulating leptin in lean and genetically obese fa/fa rats

Mechanisms of regulation of plasma leptin in lean and genetically obese animals are not completely understood. In particular a relation has been proposed between energy metabolism and leptin. However, it is not clear how energy expenditure and leptin are related under exercise in lean and obese animals. To clarify these aspects we investigated lean and genetically obese (fa/fa) Zucker rats undergoing a single bout (30 min) of swimming and measured several biochemical and hormonal parameters of energy metabolism and leptin changes throughout the study. Moreover ob-gene expression in adipose tissue was also measured. Our results showed that plasma leptin is decreased by 30% at the end of exercise in lean animals while resulting unaffected in obese animals. Leptin changes in lean rats are concomitant with the peak of NEFA and glycerol release from adipose tissue rather than with the reduction of plasma insulin. Ob-gene expression in adipose tissue was markedly increased in fa/fa compared to lean rats, but was not modified by exercise both in lean and obese animals. In conclusion our data show that leptin changes during exercise are related to lipolytic events in adipose tissue and support a link between leptin and energy expenditure.     

Glycogen synthesis by hepatocytes from diabetic rats.

Hepatocytes prepared from streptozotocin- and alloxan-diabetic rats starved for 24 h contain 0.5--2% wet wt. of glycogen. Glycogen synthesis in the hepatocytes from such rats, after prior depletion of the glycogen by glucagon injection, was studied. As distinct from cells from normal animals, there was no glycogen synthesis from glucose as sole substrate, even at concentrations of 60 mM. When supplied with glucose, a gluconeogenic precursor (lactate, dihydroxyacetone or fructose), and with glutamine there was concurrent synthesis of glucose and of glycogen. Without glutamine there was little or no glycogen synthesis. The rate of glycogen formation was in the same range as for cells from control rats. Glutamine addition markedly activated glycogen synthase in cells of starved diabetic rats, but there was no effect on phosphorylase. We obtained very little synthesis of glycogen with hepatocytes from fed diabetic rats, whereas with normal animals, synthesis by such cells equals or exceeds that obtained from starved rats. The conversion of synthase b (inactive) into the active form was studied in rat liver homogenates. The activation of the synthase in cells from starved diabetic rats is somewhat less than that from normal animals, but that from fed diabetic rats is markedly decreased compared with that in livers of fed control animals or that of starved diabetic animals.     

Improved n-3 fatty acid status does not modulate insulin resistance in fa/fa Zucker rats

The objective was to examine the effect of polyunsaturated fatty acid type (plant vs fish oil-derived n-3, compared to n-6 fatty acids in the presence of constant proportions of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids) on obesity, insulin resistance and tissue fatty acid composition in genetically obese rats. Six-week-old fa/fa and lean Zucker rats were fed with a 10% (w/w) mixed fat diet containing predominantly flax-seed, menhaden or safflower oils for 9 weeks. There was no effect of dietary lipid on obesity, oral glucose tolerance (except t=60 min insulin), pancreatic function or molecular markers related to insulin, glucose and lipid metabolism, despite increased n-3 fatty acids in muscle and adipose tissue. The menhaden oil diet reduced fasting serum free fatty acids in both fa/fa and lean rats. These data suggest that n-3 composition does not alter obesity and insulin resistance in the fa/fa Zucker rat model when dietary lipid classes are balanced.     

Nonreceptor-mediated responses of adenylate cyclase in membranes from liver, muscle, and white and brown adipose tissue of obese (fa/fa) and lean (Fa/) Zucker rats

Adenylate cyclase activity was determined in membranes of liver, muscle, white adipose tissue, and brown adipose tissue (BAT) of lean (Fa/) and obese (fa/fa) Zucker rats. Responses were monitored following beta-adrenergic receptor stimulation and addition of GTP, GTP gamma S, or forskolin. beta-Adrenergic responses in liver, white adipose tissue, and BAT were lower in obese than in lean animals. No such difference was observed in muscle membranes. Production of cAMP after addition of guanine nucleotides was lower in liver and white adipose tissue membranes from obese rats compared with their lean littermates. Synthesis of cAMP in muscle membranes of obese animals after addition of GTP was either not different, or slightly higher, than that observed in muscle membranes from lean animals. Furthermore, production of cAMP after forskolin addition to muscle membranes of obese rats was significantly higher than that observed from lean rats under the same conditions. Interestingly, BAT membranes of obese rats were significantly more sensitive to guanine nucleotide activation than those of lean animals. The results confirm recent findings indicating inferior function of G proteins in liver plasma membranes of obese Zucker rats, and extend this observation to adipose tissue. The present results further suggest that the "nonreceptor" components (e.g., G proteins) responsible for the activation of adenylate cyclase in BAT membranes of obese rats are more responsive to stimulation than those of lean animals. Such sensitivity may be related to and perhaps compensate for the reduced thermogenic activity in the obese Zucker rat during the development of obesity.     

Non-hormonal and hormonal control of glycogen metabolism in isolated sheep liver cells

1. Control of glycogen metabolism by various substrates and hormones was studied in ruminant liver using isolated hepatocytes from fed sheep. 2. In these cells glucose appeared uneffective to stimulate glycogen synthesis whereas fructose and propionate activated glycogen synthase owing to (i) a decrease in phosphorylase a activity and (ii) changes in the intracellular concentrations of glucose 6-phosphate and adenine nucleotides. 3. The activation of hepatic glycogenolysis by glucagon and alpha 1-adrenergic agents was associated with increased phosphorylase a and decreased glycogen synthase activities. 4. The simultaneous changes in these two enzyme activities suggest that in sheep liver, activation of phosphorylase a is not a prerequisite step for synthase inactivation. 5. In sheep hepatocytes, in the presence of propionate and after a lag period, insulin activated glycogen synthase without affecting phosphorylase a. 6. This latter result suggests that the direct activation of glycogen synthase by insulin is mediated by a glycogen synthase-specific kinase or phosphatase. Insulin also antagonized glucagon effect on glycogen synthesis by counteracting the rise of cAMP.     

Measurement by radioimmunoassay of the mitochondrial uncoupling protein from brown adipose tissue of obese (ob/ob) mice and Zucker (fa/fa) rats at different ages

The concentration of the 'uncoupling protein' in brown adipose tissue mitochondria has been measured in lean and obese (ob/ob) mice and Zucker (fa/fa) rats at different ages using a specific radioimmunoassay. During the suckling period the concentration of the protein was similar in normal and mutant animals of both types, despite the decrease in mitochondrial GDP binding observed in the obese. The concentration of uncoupling protein was, however, decreased in adult ob/ob mice and adult Zucker rats compared with their respective lean siblings, in parallel with the decrease in GDP binding. It is concluded that there is a 'masked', or inactive, form of uncoupling protein in young ob/ob mice and fa/fa rats.