Metabolism of amino acid amides in Pseudomonas putida ATCC 12633

The metabolism of the natural amino acid l-valine, the unnatural amino acids d-valine, and d-, l-phenyglycine (d-, l-PG), and the unnatural amino acid amides d-, l-phenylglycine amide (d-, l-PG-NH₂) and l-valine amide (l-Val-NH₂) was studied in Pseudomonas putida ATCC 12633. The organism possessed constitutive l-amidase activities towards l-PG-NH₂ and l-Val-NH₂, both following the same pattern of expression, suggesting the involvement of similarly regulated enzymes, or a common enzyme. Quite surprisingly, growth in mineral media with l-PG-NH₂ resulted in variable, long lag phases of growth and strongly reduced l-amidase activities. Conversion of d-PG-NH₂ into d-PG and l-PG also occurred and could be attributed to the presence of an inducible d-amidase and the racemization of the amino acid amide in combination with l-amidase activity, respectively. The further degradation of l-PG and d-PG involved constitutive l-PG aminotransferase and inducible d-PG dehydrogenase activities, respectively, both with a high degree of enantioselectivity. Amino acid racemase activity for d- and l-PG was not detected. Correspondence to: L. Dijkhuizen     

Removal of <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">l</Emphasis>-alanine from the production of <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">l</Emphasis>-2-aminobutyric acid by introduction of alanine racemase and <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">d</Emphasis>-amino acid oxidase

l-2-Aminobutyric acid can be synthesized in a transamination reaction from l-threonine and l-aspartic acid as substrates by the action of threonine deaminase and aromatic aminotransferase, but the by-product l-alanine was produced simultaneously. A small amount of l-alanine increased the complexity of the l-2-aminobutyric acid recovery process because of their extreme similarity in physical and chemical properties. Acetolactate synthase has been introduced to remove the pyruvate intermediate for reducing the l-alanine concentration partially. To eliminate the remnant l-alanine, alanine racemase of Bacillus subtilis in combination with d-amino acid oxidase of Rhodotorula gracilis or Trigonopsis variabilis respectively was introduced into the reaction system for the l-2-aminobutyric acid synthesis. l-Alanine could be completely removed by the action of alanine racemase of B. subtilis and d-amino acid oxidase of R. gracilis; thereby, high-purity l-2-aminobutyric acid was achieved. The results revealed that alanine racemase could discriminate effectively between l-alanine and l-2-aminobutyric acid, and selectively catalyzed l-alanine to d-alanine reversibly. d-Amino acid oxidase then catalyzed d-alanine to pyruvate stereoselectively. Furthermore, this method was also successfully used to remove the by-product l-alanine in the production of other neutral amino acids such as l-tertiary leucine and l-valine, suggesting that multienzymatic whole-cell catalysis can be employed to provide high purity products.     

Nutritional and medicinal aspects of <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">d</Emphasis>-amino acids

This paper reviews and interprets a method for determining the nutritional value of d-amino acids, d-peptides, and amino acid derivatives using a growth assay in mice fed a synthetic all-amino acid diet. A large number of experiments were carried out in which a molar equivalent of the test compound replaced a nutritionally essential amino acid such as l-lysine (l-Lys), l-methionine (l-Met), l-phenylalanine (l-Phe), and l-tryptophan (l-Trp) as well as the semi-essential amino acids l-cysteine (l-Cys) and l-tyrosine (l-Tyr). The results show wide-ranging variations in the biological utilization of test substances. The method is generally applicable to the determination of the biological utilization and safety of any amino acid derivative as a potential nutritional source of the corresponding l-amino acid. Because the organism is forced to use the d-amino acid or amino acid derivative as the sole source of the essential or semi-essential amino acid being replaced, and because a free amino acid diet allows better control of composition, the use of all-amino-acid diets for such determinations may be preferable to protein-based diets. Also covered are brief summaries of the widely scattered literature on dietary and pharmacological aspects of 27 individual d-amino acids, d-peptides, and isomeric amino acid derivatives and suggested research needs in each of these areas. The described results provide a valuable record and resource for further progress on the multifaceted aspects of d-amino acids in food and biological samples.     

Fermentation of seaweed sugars by Lactobacillus species and the potential of seaweed as a biomass feedstock

It is known that seaweeds differ greatly from land plants in their sugar composition. The current research on the L-lactic acid fermentation process focuses on land plant sugars as a carbon source, with the potential of seaweed sugars being largely ignored. This study examined the feasibility of seaweed biomass as a possible carbon source for the production of l-lactic acid, by comparing the fermentation of seaweed sugars (d-galactose, d-mannitol, l-rhamnose, d-glucuronic acid, and l-fucose) and land plant sugars (d-glucose, d-xylose, d-mannose, and l-arabinose). The experiments were repeated with 2 sugar acids (d-gluconic acid, d-glucaric acid) in order to investigate the effect of the degree of reduction of carbon source on the fermentation yield. This research also examined the effect of bacterial strain on the characteristics of fermentation reactions, by conducting l-lactic acid fermentation with 7 different Lactobacillus species. Taking into account the sugar composition of seaweed and the levels of lactic acid production from each pure sugar, it was possible to predict the lactic acid production yield of various seaweeds and land plants. From comparative analysis of the predicted lactic acid production yield, it was found that seaweeds are already comparable to lignocellulosics at the current stage of technology. If new technologies for the utilization of non-fermentable seaweed sugars are developed, seaweeds show promise as an even more useful biomass feedstock than lignocellulosics.     

Bacterial assimilation of d- and l-2-chloropropionates and occurrence of a new dehalogenase

The occurrence of a new bacterial dehalogenase acting on both the optical isomers of 2-halogenated alkanoic acids was demonstrated. When the haloalkanoic acid-utilizing bacteria were screened in a medium containing dl-2-chloropropionate as a sole carbon source, two types of bacteria were isolated: (1) a few strains utilizing both d- and l-isomers of 2-chloropropionate and (2) strains utilizing only the l-isomer. A dehalogenating enzyme was obtained from the cells of Pseudomonas sp. which is able to utilize both isomers. The crude enzyme catalyzed the dehalogenation of d- and l-2-chloropropionates to yield l- and d-isomers of lactate, respectively. The enzyme showed the same pH optimum and heat inactivation rate for the d- and l-isomers. Apparent K _m values for d- and l-2-chloropropionates were 4.5 and 1.0 mM, respectively. The enzyme acted specifically on 2-haloalkanoic acids. Activity staining of disc-gels electrophoresed witg the crude enzyme preparation showed that the dehalogenation of d- and l-2-chloropropionates, monochloroacetate, dichloroacetate, 2,2-dichloropropionate, and dl-2-chlorobutyrate is due to a single protein.Abbreviations MCA monochloroacetic acid - DCA dichloroacetic acid - TCA trichloroacetic acid - 2 MCPA 2-monochloropropionic acid - 22 DCPA 2,2-dichloropropionic acid - 3 MCPA 3-monochloropropionic acid - 2 MCBA 2-monochlorobutyric acid - 3 MCBA 3-monochlorobutyric acid - 4 MCBA 4-monochlorobutyric acid     

Zur chemischen Zusammensetzung der Zellwand der Streptokokken

Zusammenfassung Das Murein (Peptidoglycan) eines aus Faeces isolierten Streptococcus, der in den wichtigsten Merkmalen mit Peptostreptococcus evolutus (Prevot) Smith übereinstimmt, weist folgende Molverhältnisse auf (aufgerundete bzw. abgerundete Zahlen): Mur:GlcNH₂:Ala:Glu:Lys:Gly=1:1:3:1:1:1. Das Verhältnis l-Alanin:d-Alanin=2,15:1. Die Glutaminsäure liegt in der d-Konfiguration und als Amid vor.Durch die Partialhydrolyse der Zellwände und die anschließende Isolierung und Identifizierung der Peptide konnte die Aminosäuresequenz des Mureins geklärt werden. Das Tetrapeptid stimmt mit der üblichen Sequenz l-Ala-d-Glu-NH₂-l-Lys-d-Ala der meisten übrigen Bakterien überein. Die Quervernetzung des Mureins wird durch das Peptid Glycyl-l-Alanin hergestellt, wobei l-Alanin an die -Aminogruppe des Lysins gebunden ist. Die Dinitrophenylierung der Zellwand ergab, daß 35% des Glycins und 6% des Lysins eine freie Aminogruppe aufweisen. Die Quervernetzung ist demnach nur zu höchstens 60% durchgeführt.

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The chemical composition of the cell walls of Streptococci III. The amino acid sequence of a glycine containing murein from Peptostreptococcus evolutus (Prevot) Smith

Summary Peptostreptococcus evolutus was isolated from feces. Its murein containes muramic acid, glucosamine, alanine, d-glutamic acid, lysine and glycine at a molar ratio of about 1:1:3:1:1:1. The ratio of l-alanine: d-alanine is 2,15:1. Glutamic acid is present as an amide.By acid partial hydrolysis of the cell walls and subsequent isolation and identification of the peptides the amino acid sequence of the murein was elucidated. The tetrapeptide is identical with that of most bacteria (l-Ala-d-Glu-NH₂-l-Lys-d-Ala). The crosslinking of the murein is performed by the peptide glycyl-l-alanine. l-alanine is attached to the -amino group of lysine while the amino group of glycine is bound to the carboxyl group of the c-terminal d-alanine of an adjacent tetrapeptide. About 35% glycine and 6% lysine of the murein are dinitrophenylisable indicating that maximally 60% of the possible cross-linkages are realized.

     

Synthesis of proline-derived dipeptides and their catalytic enantioselective direct aldol reactions: catalyst, solvent, additive and temperature effects

A series of dipeptides of l-proline-l-amino acid and l-proline-d-amino acid were synthesized to evaluate the catalytic effect for asymmetric direct aldol reactions. In the direct aldol reaction, a catalyst of l-proline-l-amino acid achieves better enantioselectivity than the corresponding l-proline-d-amino acid catalyst. Solubility of the dipeptide catalysts in the solvents is a key point for achieving a better yield of the direct aldol reaction, while hydrogen bonding of solvent does not play an important role in attaining better enantioselectivity and yield. Yield and enantioselectivity of the direct aldol reaction in water were improved by NMM and SDS additives, but the results that were done in plain DMSO were even better.     

Murein structure of Acetobacterium woodii

The isolated cell walls of Acetobacterium woodii contain a murein of the crosslinkage type B. d-Orinithinyl residues function as interpeptide bridges between the -carboxyl group of d-glutamic acid and the carboxyl group of the terminal d-analyl residue of an adjacent peptide subunit. The usual l-alanyl residue in position 1 of the peptide subunit is replaced by a l-seryl residue. As yet this murein type was only found in Eubacterium limosum, an organism which was supposed to be related to Acetobacterium because of some metabolic similarities.     

Biosynthesis and metabolism of l-ascorbic acid in virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia L.)

Detached leaves of Parthenocissus quinquefolia L., Vitaceae convert d-glucose to l-ascorbic acid with conservation of the carbon chain sequence and with retention of the hydroxymethyl group at carbon 6. l-Ascorbic acid is cleaved between carbons 4 and 5. The C₄ fragment is converted to l-tartaric acid. The C₂ fragment, possibly glycolaldehyde, recycles into products of hexose phosphate metabolism. During the metabolic period a relatively high portion of carbon-1 of l-ascorbic acid, as compared with carbon-4, was released as CO₂. These studies demonstrate the usefulness of Virginia Creeper for yeararound research on ascorbic-acid metabolism and tartaric-acid biosynthesis in Vitaceae-type plants.Abbreviation AA l-Ascorbic Acid     

Regulation of differentiation of the dimorphic fungusPaecilomyces viridis by nitrogen sources,antibiotics and metabolic inhibitors

The effect of nitrogen and carbon sources, vitamins, antibiotics and metabolic inhibitors on growth and differentiation ofPaecilomyces viridis was investigated. Sodium nitrate,l-asparagine,l-proline and peptone were found to be suitable nitrogen sources for mycelial growth (M) in a synthetic medium with glucose.Paecilomyces viridis could also grow slowly in a synthetic medium containing benzylpenicillin or bacitracin as the only nitrogen sources and very slowly even in a medium with polymyxin as the nitrogen source. Ammonium salts, area,l-arginine,d, l-aspartic acid andl,-serine were found to support intensive sporulation. Partially yeast-like growth (Y) was facilitated by NaNO₂, (NH₄)₂SO₄, NH₄NO₃, urea,d, l-alanine,l-arginine,d, l-aspartic acid,l-cysteine,l-glutamic acid andl-serine. Partially yeastlike growth could be observed in a medium with peptone and at an initial pH of 2. The following compounds appear as suitable carbon sources for mycelial growth:d-glucose,d-galactose,d-mannose, maltose, sucrose, chitin andd-mannitol. No changes in morphology could be detected on any of the 25 used carbon sources in a synthetic medium with NaNO₃. Yeast-like growth was induced by the antibiotics azalomycin F, cyanein (brefeldin A), griseofulvin and monorden (radicicol). After removal of the antibiotics, mycelial growth was restored. Sporulation was stimulated by chloramphenicol, 2-deoxy-d-glucose, furancarboxylic acid and stipitatic acid. Deformation of phialides was observed after treatment with actinomycin D, amphotericin B, boromycin, citrinin, cycloheximide, cytochalasin D, fungicidin and scopathricin. Microcyclic conidiation or growth of phialides directly from conidia were induced by cycloheximide, desertomycin, ethidium bromide and 5-fluorouracil.     

Efficient synthesis of enantiomeric ethyl lactate by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Candida antarctica</Emphasis> lipase B (CALB)-displaying yeasts

The whole-cell biocatalyst displaying Candida antarctica lipase B (CALB) on the yeast cell surface with α-agglutinin as the anchor protein was easy to handle and possessed high stability. The lyophilized CALB-displaying yeasts showed their original hydrolytic activity and were applied to an ester synthesis using ethanol and l-lactic acid as substrates. In water-saturated heptane, CALB-displaying yeasts catalyzed ethyl lactate synthesis. The synthesis efficiency increased depending on temperature and reached approximately 74% at 50°C. The amount of l-ethyl lactate increased gradually. l-Ethyl lactate synthesis stopped at 200 h and restarted after adding of l-lactic acid at 253 h. It indicated that CALB-displaying yeasts retained their synthetic activity under such reaction conditions. In addition, CALB-displaying yeasts were able to recognize l-lactic acid and d-lactic acid as substrates. l-Ethyl lactate was prepared from l-lactic acid and d-ethyl lactate was prepared from d-lactic acid using the same CALB-displaying whole-cell biocatalyst. These findings suggest that CALB-displaying yeasts can supply the enantiomeric lactic esters for preparation of useful and improved biopolymers of lactic acid.     

Uptake of amino acids by actidione-treated yeast cells

The steady-state levels of distribution of glycine,l-aspartic acid,l-leucine and, to a lesser extent, ofl-lysine andl-methionine, in actidione-treated baker’s yeast cells are significantly altered (usually decreased) in the presence ofd-glucose,d-mannose,d-fructose, 2-deoxy-d-glucose, maltose, sucrose and, after induction,d-galactose. Stimulatory effects ofd-ribose,l-sorbose andd-xylose are not highly significant. Pronounced effects of sugars were also found anaerobically. No effect of amino acids on sugar uptake was observed. Three types of interaction appear to be present: (1) increase of energy reserves by metabolized sugars; (2) increased rate of carrier breakdown in the presence of metabolized sugars; (3) interaction at the carrier level in a “heteropolyvalent” membrane complex.     

In situ kinetic measurements of d -amino acid oxidase in rat liver with respect to its substrate specificity

Summary d-Amino acid oxidase activity was demonstrated in peroxisomes of rat liver using unfixed cryostat sections and a histochemical technique using cerium ions as capture reagent for hydrogen peroxide and diaminobenzidine, cobalt ions and exogenous hydrogen peroxide to visualize the final reaction product for light microscopical analysis. Cytophotometric analysis of liver sections revealed similar zero-order reaction velocities of d-amino acid oxidase with activity twice as high in periportal areas as in pericentral areas of liver lobuli when using either d-proline or d,l-thiazolidine-2-carboxylic acid as substrates. On the other hand, a 4–5 times higher K _M value was found for d-proline than for d,l-thiazolidine-2-carboxylic acid. The K _M values in periportal and pericentral areas were similar for each substrate. These findings support the suggestion that the physiological substrate for d-amino acid oxidase may be d,l-thiazolidine-2-carboxylic acid, the adduct of cysteamine and glyoxylic acid. d-Amino acid oxidase may play a role in vivo in the production of oxalate which may participate in metabolic control processes as an intracellular messenger molecule.     

Altered <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">d</Emphasis>-methionine kinetics in rats with renal impairment

d-Amino acids are now recognized to be widely present in mammals. In rats, exogenously administered d-methionine is almost converted into the l-enantiomer via 2-oxo-4-methylthiobutylic acid as an intermediate. d-Amino acid oxidase is associated with conversion of d-methionine into the 2-oxo acid. Since d-amino acid oxidase is present at the highest activity in the kidney compared to other organ, kidney injury is suggested to cause accumulation of d-methionine. The purpose of the present study is to assess the role of kidney in the elimination of d-methionine and metabolic conversion into l-methionine in rats using a stable isotope methodology. After a bolus i.v. administration of d-[²H₃]methionine to 5/6-nephrectomized rats, plasma concentrations of d-[²H₃]methionine, l-[²H₃]methionine, and endogenous l-methionine were determined by a stereoselective GC–MS method. Renal mass reduction slowed down the elimination of d-[²H₃]methionine. The clearance values of conversion of d-[²H₃]methionine into the l-enantiomer in 5/6-nephrectomized rats were one-sixth of those in sham-operated rats. The elimination behavior of d-[²H₃]methionine observed in rats demonstrated that kidney was the principal organ responsible for chiral inversion of d-methionine.     

Die Aminosäuresequenz des Mureins von Lactobacillus coprophilus

Zusammenfassung Das Murein (Peptidoglycan) von Lactobacillus coprophilus enthält Muraminsäure, Glucosamin, Glutaminsäure, Lysin und Alanin in einem molaren Verhältnis von etwa 1:1:1:1:3,3. Das Verhältnis d-Ala: l-Ala beträgt 1:3. Die Aminosäuresequenz der Muropeptide ist wie bei den meisten bisher untersuchten Bakterien l-Ala, d-Glu, l-Lys-d-Ala. Die Glutaminsäure liegt dabei als Amid vor.Die Querverbindung erfolgt durch das Dipeptid l-Alanyl-l-Alanin, das einerseits an die -Aminogruppe des Lysins, andererseits an die Carboxylgruppe des d-Alanins eines benachbarten Muropeptides gebunden ist. Im fertigen Murein sind rund 4% der -Aminogruppen des Lysins und 7,5% der Aminogruppe des Alanins, das sind 30% des N-terminalen l-Alanins der Brückenpeptide, frei. Die Quervernetzung ist demnach nur zu rund 70% verwirklicht.

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The amino acid sequence of the murein of Lactobacillus coprophilus

Summary The murein (peptidoglycan) of Lactobacillus coprophilus contains muramic acid, glucosamine, glutamic acid, lysine and alanine in a molar ratio of about 1:1:1:1:3.3. The ratio of d-/l-alanine is 1:3.1. The amino acid sequence of the muropeptides is identical with that of most bacteria (l-Ala-d-Glu-l-Lys-d-Ala). Glutamic acid is present as an amide.The dipeptide l-alanyl-l-alanine is involved in the cross linking of adjacent muropeptides, by forming a bridge between the -amino group of lysine and the carboxyl group of a C-terminal d-alanine.About 4% of the -amino groups of lysine and 7.5% of the amino groups of alanine (i.e. 30% of the N-terminal l-alanine of the crosslinking-peptides) are free. This indicates, that only 70% of the possible cross-linkages are realized.

     

Identification of S-carboxymethyl-thiopyruvate as the product of oxidative deamination of S-carboxymethyl-cysteine

Summary Bromopyruvic acid and thioglycolic acid react to form carboxymethylthiopyruvic acid, which was then isolated as the 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone. Chromatographic and spectral properties of the compound have been investigated. Using this as a reference standard, it has been possible to demonstrate that carboxymethylthiopyruvate is the main product of the oxidative deamination of carboxymethylcysteine, D-isomer, catalyzed by D-aspartate oxidase. It has been demonstrated moreover that carboxymethylcysteine, L-isomer, may be a substrate for snake venom L-aminoacid oxidase.CMC S-carboxymethyl-cysteine - CMTP S-carboxymethyl-thiopyruvic acid - 2,4-DNPH 2,4-dinitrophelylhydrazine - DNPH 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone - d-aspartate oxidase d-aspartate: O₂ oxidoreductase, deaminating, E.C. 1.4.3.1 - l-aminoacid oxidase l-aminoacid: O₂ oxidoreductase, deaminating, E.C. 1.4.3.2 - d-aminoacid oxidase d-aminoacid: O₂ oxidoreductase, deaminating, E.C. 1.4.3.3 - l-glutamic dehydrogenase l-glutamate: NAD oxidoreductase, deaminating, E.C. 1.4.1.2.     

A peptide binding chromogenic assay for detecting glycopeptide antibiotics

Summary A solid-phase peptide binding assay, based on the mechanism of action of glycopeptide antibiotics, was developed for detecting this chemical class of metabolites. Utilizing a pentapeptide (l-alanyl-d-isoglutaminyl-l-lysyl-d-alanyl-d-alanine)-bovine serum albumin conjugate immobilized on the wall of microtiter wells, the binding of the vancomycin-alkaline phosphatase to the peptide could be demonstrated by subsequently monitoring the enzyme activity. The presence of glycopeptides in fermentation broths could be detected and quantified with a competitive binding assay. Peptides with ad-alanyl-d-alanine carboxyl terminus were necessary for the binding of these glycopeptides, thus confirming the mode of action of this class of antibiotics.     

Die Aminosäuresequenz des Threonin und Serin enthaltenden Mureins von Bifidobacterium longum Reuter

Zusammenfassung Von 18 Stämmen von Bifidobacterium longum Reuter und einem Stamm von B. lactentis Reuter wurden die Zellwände in üblicher Weise hergestellt. Sie enthielten Mur, GlcNH₂, d-Glu, Ala, l-Orn (l-Lys), Thr, Ser in einem Molverhältnis von rund 1:1:1:4:1:1:1. Die Molverhältnisse änderten sich nicht, wenn die Zellwände mit Trichloressigsäure oder heißem Formamid extrahiert wurden. In einigen Stämmen trat mehr als 1 Mol Glutaminsäure pro Mol Diaminosäure auf. Die zusätzliche Glutaminsäure hatte die l-Konfiguration. Sie war kein Bestandteil des Mureins, sondern einer lysozymunempfindlichen, unbekannten Zellwandkomponente, vermutlich einer Polyglutaminsäure. l-Ornithin war in den meisten Stämmen die dominierende Diaminosäure, während l-Lysin nur mit einem Anteil von 10–20% vertreten war. In 2 Stämmen war l-Lysin dominierend (90%). Die Aminosäuresequenz wurde durch die Analyse der Oligopeptide aus Partialhydrolysaten bestimmt. Die an Mureinsäure gebundenen Peptiduntereinheiten hatten die auch von anderen Mureinen bekannte Sequenz: l-Ala-d-Glu-l-Orn (oder l-Lys)-d-Ala. Glutaminsäure ist wahrscheinlich amidiert, wie aus dem Auftreten von rund 1 Mol NH₃ im Hydrolysat der Zellwände zu schließen ist. Die Interpeptidbrücke besteht aus dem Peptid l-Ala-Thr-l-Ala-l-Ser. Sie ist mit dem C-terminalen Serin an die -Aminogruppe der Diaminosäure der Peptiduntereinheit gebunden. Die Quervernetzung erfolgt zwischen dem N-terminalen Alanin der Interpeptidbrücke zum C-terminalen d-Alanin einer Peptiduntereinheit. Da 4% des gesamten Alanins und 3% der -Aminogruppe des Ornithins dinitrophenylierbar sind, ist anzunehmen, daß die Quervernetzung nur zu etwa 80% verwirklicht ist.

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The amino acid sequence of the threonine and serine containing murein of Bifidobacterium longum reuter

Summary Cell walls of 18 strains of Bifidobacterium longum Reuter and one strain of B. lactentis Reuter were prepared in the usual way. They contained Mur, GlcNH₂, d-Glu, Ala, l-Orn (l-Lys), Thr, Ser in a molar ratio of about 1:1:1:4:1:1:1. The ratio was not changed when the cell walls were extracted by trichloroacetic acid or hot formamide. In some strains more than 1 mole glutamic acid per mole of diamino acid was present. The additional glutamic acid was of the l-rather than the d-form. It was not a constituent of the murein, but of an unknown lysozyme insensitive cell wall component, probably a polyglutamic acid. l-Ornithine was the dominating diamino acid in most strains but l-lysine was also present in a portion of 10 to 20%. In 2 strains l-lysine was dominating (90%).The amino acid sequence was determined by analysing the oligopeptides arising during partial acid hydrolysis. It was shown that the peptide subunits attached to the muramic acid are the same as those of other mureins: l-Ala-d-Glu-l-Orn (or l-Lys)-d-Ala. glutamic acid is probably amidated, since about 1 mole of NH₃ is released by acid hydrolysis of the cell walls. The interpeptide bridge consists of the peptide l-Ala-Thr-l-Ala-l-Ser which is bound by its C-terminal serine to the -amino group of the diamino acid of one peptide subunit and by its N-terminal l-alanine to the C-terminal d-alanine of another peptide subunit. About 4% of the total alanine and 3% of the -amino groups of ornithine of the cell wall can be dinitrophenylated. This indicates that about 20% of the peptide subunits are not crosslinked.

     

Utilization of d-amino acids by dadR mutants of Salmonella typhimurium

Utilization of d-amino acids being substrates of d-amino acid dehydrogenase of Salmonella typhimurium was examined. The experiments were done with wild type strains and the mutants dadA missing the enzyme activity and dadR in which its synthesis is released from catabolite repression. Growth on d-tryptophan, d-histidine and d-methionine used as precursors of the l-amino acids was faster when the respective auxotrophs carried dadR mutations. The dadR mutants grew faster when d-or l-alanine was present as a sole source of nitrogen. Experiments with d-amino acid dehydrogenase in vitro provided evidence that d-tryptophan is its substrate with a very low affinity to the dehydrogenase.     

Enzymatic conversion of D-galactose to D-tagatose: heterologous expression and characterisation of a thermostable L-arabinose isomerase from Thermoanaerobacter mathranii

The ability to convert d-galactose into d-tagatose was compared among a number of bacterial l-arabinose isomerases (araA). One of the most efficient enzymes, from the anaerobic thermophilic bacterium Thermoanaerobacter mathranii, was produced heterologously in Escherichia coli and characterised. Amino acid sequence comparisons indicated that this enzyme is only distantly related to the group of previously known araA sequences in which the sequence similarity is evident. The substrate specificity and the Michaelis–Menten constants of the enzyme determined with l-arabinose, d-galactose and d-fucose also indicated that this enzyme is an unusual, versatile l-arabinose isomerase which is able to isomerise structurally related sugars. The enzyme was immobilised and used for production of d-tagatose at 65 °C. Starting from a 30% solution of d-galactose, the yield of d-tagatose was 42% and no sugars other than d-tagatose and d-galactose were detected. Direct conversion of lactose to d-tagatose in a single reactor was demonstrated using a thermostable -galactosidase together with the thermostable l-arabinose isomerase. The two enzymes were also successfully combined with a commercially available glucose isomerase for conversion of lactose into a sweetening mixture comprising lactose, glucose, galactose, fructose and tagatose.