Studies on the helminth parasites of freshwater fishes of the Sudan

2419 freshwater fishes from the Sudan were examined for helminth parasites and found to harbour one monogenean species, 15 species of adult digenetic trematodes, three species of larval trematodes, 16 species of adult cestodes, 13 species of adult nematodes, two species of larval nematodes and three species of acanthocephalans. Four species of adults and four species of larval worms are recorded for the first time in the Sudan and 30 new hosts are listed. The intensity of infestation of each species, the host-specificity and the variations in the infestation of fishes are discussed. The helminth fauna of the Sudan is compared with that of other African countries.     

Detection of a new important staging and wintering area of the White Stork Ciconia ciconia by satellite tracking

Since 1991, a large-scale satellite tracking study of White Stork Ciconia ciconia has followed 75 individuals along the eastern migration route, which passes across Israel into eastern Africa. Twenty-six of these birds travelled at least as far as the Sudan. Fifteen (58%) did not migrate to the eastern Sudan — the primary winter quarters in Africa suggested by ring recoveries — but flew to western Sudan and Chad and in one case even through Cameroon and into Nigeria. The significance of this new, important staging region for White Storks should be investigated urgently to establish the areas that are ecologically valuable for the conservation of this species.     

Phlebotomus longipes Parrot & Martin (Diptera: Phlebotomidae) and a new related species

Hitherto it was considered that Phlebotomus longipes Parrot & Martin occurred in Ethiopia, Kenya and the Sudan and was the vector of Leish-mania tropica (Wright) in Ethiopia and in one area of Kenya. Study of additional specimens indicates that those from Kenya, the Sudan and one area of Ethiopia represent a new species. Both species show local variation.     

Rapid microsatellite marker development for African mahogany (Khaya senegalensis, Meliaceae) using next-generation sequencing and assessment of its intra-specific genetic diversity

Khaya senegalensis (African mahogany or dry-zone mahogany) is a high-value hardwood timber species with great potential for forest plantations in northern Australia. The species is distributed across the sub-Saharan belt from Senegal to Sudan and Uganda. Because of heavy exploitation and constraints on natural regeneration and sustainable planting, it is now classified as a vulnerable species. Here, we describe the development of microsatellite markers for K. senegalensis using next-generation sequencing to assess its intra-specific diversity across its natural range, which is a key for successful breeding programs and effective conservation management of the species. Next-generation sequencing yielded 93,943 sequences with an average read length of 234 bp. The assembled sequences contained 1030 simple sequence repeats, with primers designed for 522 microsatellite loci. Twenty-one microsatellite loci were tested with 11 showing reliable amplification and polymorphism in K. senegalensis. The 11 novel microsatellites, together with one previously published, were used to assess 73 accessions belonging to the Australian K. senegalensis domestication program, sampled from across the natural range of the species. STRUCTURE analysis shows two major clusters, one comprising mainly accessions from west Africa (Senegal to Benin) and the second based in the far eastern limits of the range in Sudan and Uganda. Higher levels of genetic diversity were found in material from western Africa. This suggests that new seed collections from this region may yield more diverse genotypes than those originating from Sudan and Uganda in eastern Africa.     

Two new combinations in the South Sudanese flora

Two new combinations are made in preparation for a forthcoming checklist of the plants of Sudan and South Sudan: Dicliptera lanceolata (Lindau) I. Darbysh. & Kordofani (Acanthaceae), a South Sudan endemic, and Campylospermum likimiense (De Wild.) I. Darbysh. & Kordofani (Ochnaceae), recorded from South Sudan and Ethiopia to Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Lectotypes are designated for each name. The habitat and ecology, distribution within South Sudan and conservation status are presented for each species.     

STUDIES IN THE BACTERIAL DISEASES OF SUDAN CROPS: II. BACTERIAL LEAF BLIGHT DISEASE OF CASTOR (RICINUS COMMUNIS L.)

The bacterial disease of castor in the Sudan has been reinvestigated. Typically the disease symptoms are brown or black, round or angular lesions on leaves; occasionally the thin succulent branches are attacked, but not the vascular tissue.
The bacterium responsible for the disease was previously thought to be Pseudomonas solanacearum E.F.Sm. but comparative studies show that the Sudan species differs in pathogenicity and physiology from P. solanacearum. It closely resembles Xanthomonas ricinicola (Elliott) Dowson (= Bacterium ricini Yoshi and Takimoto) in characters, host range and pathogenic effects. In culture on solid media the growth of X. ricinicola is typically yellow, while that of the Sudan species is dirty white; but this difference is not considered sufficient to justify the establishment of a new species.
The author proposes the specific name ricini originally adopted by Archibald (1927) and Yoshi & Takimoto (1928), for the species of Xanthomonas causing the leaf blight disease of castor, and considers that the causal organism in the Sudan is an atypical strain of this species.     

Two new species in Justicia sect. Harnieria (Acanthaceae) from tropical Africa

Two new species of Justicia sect. Harnieria (Acanthaceae) are described: J. afromontana from Sudan and Uganda, and J. huambensis from Angola.     

Species of the genus Thrips from India (Thysanoptera)

Abstract. The species of Thrips Linnaeus from the Indian region are revised, and a key is provided to the thirty-three valid species, including eight new species and one new subspecies, Eight species customarily included in Taenio-thrips Amyot & Serville are here included in Thrips and six species are newly placed in synonymy: Thrips hawaiiensis (Morgan) (= Thrips exilicornis Hood from Africa); Thrips palmi Karny (= leucadophilus Priesner from Sudan); Thrips brunneus Anan. & Jaga. ( =speratus zur Strassen from South West Africa); Thrips tabaci Lind.(= kallarensis (Anan.) from India); Thrips sumatrensis Priesner (= lucaenae Moulton from Guam); Thrips simplex (Morison) (= Taeniothrips quinani Moulton from South Africa). Isoneurothrips Bagnall is regarded as a synonym of Thrips , and Isothrips is treated as a synonym rather than as a sub-genus. Two nominal species, beharensis (Ram. & Marg.) and rostratus (Ram. & Marg.) are considered unrecognizable at present.     

New species of the genus Typhlodromus from Sudan (Acari: Phytoseiidae)

The genus Typhlodromus in Sudan includes five species. Of these, three new species are described and illustrated in this work. Individuals of T. sudanicus Elbadry and T. medanicus Elbadry have been found to play an important role in feeding on phytophagous mites and white fly nymphs infesting cotton crop.
Typhlodromus niloticus sp. n. and T. balanites sp. n. from fruit trees feed on tetranychid and eriophyid mites. T. sennarensis sp. n. has been collected from wild plants.
A key is provided for the identification of members of the genus Typhlodromus in Sudan.     

Analysis of ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer sequences of the Leishmania donovani complex

To understand phylogenetic relationships of species and strains within the Leishmania donovani complex, we have analyzed the ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences of 27 Leishmania infantum, 2 Leishmania chagasi, 18 L. donovani and 5 Leishmania archibaldi strains of different zymodemes and geographical origin. Eight ITS sequence types were found. All detected sequence variation within ITS1 and ITS2 was based on 12 polymorphic microsatellites. The L. infantum strains from the Mediterranean region, China and L. chagasi from the New World formed a phylogenetic group well separated from the second main group including all strains from East Africa and India. Within the latter group three distinct phylogenetic subgroups could be differentiated: (1) L. donovani (Sudan/Ethiopia, China) + L. archibaldi (Sudan), (2) L. donovani (Sudan/Ethiopia) + L. infantum (Sudan) + L. archibaldi (Sudan/Ethiopia), and (3) L. donovani (Kenya, India). These groups are not consistent with previous species definitions based on isoenzyme analyses, e.g. L. infantum is polyphyletic and L. archibaldi is not supported as a distinct species. Two groups of Indian strains could be differentiated, one of which has an identical sequence type to the strains from Kenya. Three main lineages of strains can thus be differentiated in East Africa: two quite distantly related groups of strains from Sudan/Ethiopia, and a third group including all strains from Kenya, which is more closely related to part of the Indian strains than to any of the Sudanese/Ethiopian groups. The ITS sequence analysis presented here supports the need for revision of the taxonomy of the L. donovani complex.     

Two new species of Justicia sect. Ansellia (Acanthaceae) from E and NE tropical Africa

The new species Justicia ornatopila from Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania, and J. lorata from Kenya are described and illustrated. Information on pollen morphology is also provided     

Cytogenetics of the Anopheles gambiae complex in Sudan, with special reference to An. arabiensis: relationships with East and West African populations

The species composition of malaria vector mosquitoes belonging to the Anopheles gambiae complex (Diptera: Culicidae) from >40 localities in Sudan, representing most ecological situations, was determined by analysis of ovarian polytene chromosomes. Of 2162 females, 93% were identified as An. arabiensis Patton and 7% were An. gambiae Giles sensu stricto. No hybrids were found between the two species. Anopheles arabiensis occurred in all but two sites, whereas An. gambiae s.s. was effectively limited to the southernmost, more humid localities. For chromosomal paracentric inversions, the degree of polymorphism was low in An. gambiae s.s. (inversions 2La, 2Rb and 2Rd), higher in An. arabiensis (inversions Xe, 2Ra, b, bc, d1, s; 3Ra, d). Anopheles gambiae samples from Sudan were all apparently panmictic, i.e. they did not show restricted gene flow such as observed among West African populations (interpreted as incipient speciation). Chromosomal inversion patterns of An. gambiae in southern Sudan showed characteristics of intergrading Savanna/Forest populations similar to those observed in comparable eco-climatic situations of West Africa. Anopheles arabiensis was polymorphic for inversion systems recorded in West Africa (2Ra, 2Rb, 2Rdl, 3Ra) and for a novel 2Rs polymorphism, overlapping with inversion systems 2Rb and 2Rd1. Samples carrying the 2Rs inversion were mostly from Khashm-el-Girba area in central-eastern Sudan. In the great majority of the samples all polymorphic inversions were found to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Sudan populations of An. arabiensis should therefore be considered as generally panmictic. Anopheles arabiensis shows more inversion polymorphism in west than in east African populations. Sudan populations have more evident similarities with those from westwards than those from eastwards of the Great Rift Valley. The possible influence of the Rift on evolution of An. arabiensis is discussed.     

Evaluation of impact of exposure of Sudan azo dyes and their metabolites on human intestinal bacteria

Sudan azo dyes are banned for food usage in most countries, but they are illegally used to maintain or enhance the color of food products due to low cost, bright staining, and wide availability of the dyes. In this report, we examined the toxic effects of these azo dyes and their potential reduction metabolites on 11 prevalent human intestinal bacterial strains. Among the tested bacteria, cell growth of 2, 3, 5, 5, and 1 strains was inhibited by Sudan I, II, III, IV, and Para Red, respectively. At the tested concentration of 100 μM, Sudan I and II inhibited growth of Clostridium perfringens and Lactobacillus rhamnosus with decrease of growth rates from 14 to 47%. Sudan II also affected growth of Enterococcus faecalis. Growth of Bifidobacterium catenulatum, C. perfringens, E. faecalis, Escherichia coli, and Peptostreptococcus magnus was affected by Sudan III and IV with decrease in growth rates from 11 to 67%. C. perfringens was the only strain in which growth was affected by Para Red with 47 and 26% growth decreases at 6 and 10 h, respectively. 1-Amino-2-naphthol, a common metabolite of the dyes, was capable of inhibiting growth of most of the tested bacteria with inhibition rates from 8 to 46%. However, the other metabolites of the dyes had no effect on growth of the bacterial strains. The dyes and their metabolites had less effect on cell viability than on cell growth of the tested bacterial strains. Clostridium indolis and Clostridium ramosum were the only two strains with about a 10 % decrease in cell viability in the presence of Sudan azo dyes. The present results suggested that Sudan azo dyes and their metabolites potentially affect the human intestinal bacterial ecology by selectively inhibiting some bacterial species, which may have an adverse effect on human health.     

Incidence of seed-borne fungi and aflatoxins in Sudanese lentil seeds

Thirteen seed samples of lentil (Lens esculenta) were incubated on agar plate and moist filter papers (Moist Chambers) at 28 ± 2 °C for determination of the incidence of seed-borne fungi. Aflatoxins content of the seeds was measured using the bright greenish-yellow fluorescence test (BGYF) and thin-layer chromatography (TLC). Sixty-nine species and seven varieties, which belong to 24 genera of fungi, were isolated from this crop. Of these fungi, 51 species and two varieties are considered new for this crop, whereas seven genera and 13 species are new to the mycoflora of the Sudan. The genus Aspergillus (13 species and 6 varieties) which comprising 44% of the total colony count was the most prevalent genus followed by Rhizopus (2 species, 19%), Penicillium (6 species) and Fusarium (8 species) (12%), Chaetomium (3 species) and Cladosporium (5 species) (6%), where the 18 genera (1–4 species) showed very low level of incidence (19%). Of the possible pathogens of lentil plants, F. oxysporum the main cause of vascular wilt was recovered from seeds of this crop. Thin layer chromatographic analysis of chloroform extracts of 13 seed samples showed that only one samples was naturally contaminated with aflatoxins B₁, B₂, G₁ and G₂ (14.3 μg/kg). This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

A new species of the conifer Frenelopsis from the Cretaceous of Sudan

Conifer fragments from the Lower Cretaceous of Sudan are preserved as internal and external silica moulds. Low viscosity silicone rubber has been used to prepare casts showing fine epidermal details which enable identification of the plants. One is I'seudofrenelopsis parceramosa (Fontaine) Watson, the other is described as a new species of Frenelopsis Schenk.     

A Ploceus sp. nov. from Uganda

A new species of weaverbird, Ploceus victoriae , is described from Entebbe, Uganda. Its nearest relatives are Ploceus taeniopterus of northeast Zaïre, Sudan, Ethiopia and northwest Kenya, and Ploceus velatus , widespread through East Africa and across the Sahel to the Atlantic, but it differs in several morphological and behavioural characteristics.     

Distinct haplotypes and free movement of Aedes aegypti in Port Sudan,Sudan

Any attempt to control a mosquito-borne disease should primarily focus on controlling its vector. In Sudan, arboviral infections are a major health problem where periodical outbreaks of arboviruses transmitted by Aedes aegypti have been reported. This preliminary study was performed to uncover the population genetic diversity of Aedes aegypti from Red Sea State, Sudan, using mtDNA-COI gene. We performed morphological identification, PCR and DNA nucleotide sequencing and analysed the genetic polymorphism, and isolation by distance of Aedes aegypti from four sites. Of the 55 samples successfully sequenced, six haplotypes were revealed. Global haplotype network revealed that the predominant haplotype in Sudan (Hap1; 31 sequences = 56.4%), the second most frequent haplotype (Hap2; 13 sequences = 23.6%) and Hap 5 (3.6%) were identical or genetically close to isolates seen in different countries distributed in the United States, South America, Europe, Asia and two African isolates, one from Kenya and the other from Europa Island (Mozambique Channel). Haplotype 4 (3.6%) appeared closely related to mosquitoes sampled from Cameroon, Kenya, Sri Lanka and India and belonged to a lineage that contained isolates from all over the geographical expansion. Haplotype 6 (1.8%) seemed quite distant from any other sequenced mtDNA. To summarize, four haplotypes were found only in Sudan, and one rare haplotype appeared genetically distant from all other haplotypes, suggesting a local origin. Subdivision measures and testing suggested a probable free (or almost free) migration between the different sites sampled.     

Palaearctic migrants in the central Sudan

A brief account is given of the topography and climate of the Sudan and a more detailed survey is made of the vegetation and habitats afforded to wintering Palaearctic migrants in the Sahel and Soudan savannah zones in the central Sudan. Climatic conditions during the migration seasons are mentioned and the utilization of habitats by wintering migrants is broadly surveyed.
The status of 196 Palaearctic migrant species is treated briefly. The basic observational data are tabulated to summarize observed patterns of migration in terms of date, relative abundance and region (for which purpose the central Sudan is divided into four from west to east). Hitherto unpublished field notes of the authors and their collaborators are used, together with dated observations (including specimens collected) of earlier authors, to provide the fullest data on each species.
Moreau's (1967) paradox is discussed as it relates to the Sahel and Soudan savannah zones in the central Sudan, together with the degree of competition with resident African species in those zones. Some disparities between the spring and autumn abundance and d. istribution of Palaearctic migrants are discussed in relation to 40 species ana some tentative views are advanced on the possible reasons for such disparities. Evidence is adduced which points to Lanius minor and Coraczus garrulus (and possibly Circus pygargus , partially at least) having loop migrations, south through the Sudan and north through Arabia, and Falco wespertinus south through the Sudan and north through West Africa. An explanation is offered for the greater volume of water birds observed migrating down-Nile in spring compared with their volume up-Nile in autumn, and for the reversed situation observed in the region west of the Nile for these same species.
Shelduck Tadorna tadorna is included in the Sudan list for the first time.     

A review of the rotifer fauna of the Sudan

A collection of rotifers contained in samples from the Blue, White and joint Niles in the Sudan, the Red Sea Hills, and Jebel Marra mountains is studied, and the previous literature on the rotifera of Sudan is reviewed. A total of 145 rotifer taxa are now known from this country. Ecological and distributional notes on selected species are added. Besides cosmopolitan, pantropical, and tropical species, a small but significant fraction of the fauna is of northern origin, possibly reflecting climatic conditions of the late-Pleistocene.     

Morphometric and molecular differentiation of Phlebotomus (Phlebotomus) sandflies

The closely related sandfly species of the subgenus Phlebotomus namely, Phlebotomus papatasi (Scopoli, 1786), Phlebotomus duboscqi Neveu‐Lemair, 1906 and Phlebotomus bergeroti Parrot, 1934 (Diptera: Psychodidae), are major vectors of Leishmania major (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae), the causative agent of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the Old World. Although allopatric in most of their distribution, the three species exist sympatrically in many places in central and eastern Sudan. Males of the three species can be distinguished using morphological characters; however, females are much harder to identify, thus complicating epidemiological studies. We carried out a morphometric and a molecular study to determine reliable morphological features and develop a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay for distinguishing females of these species. Males and females from each species were collected from sites in Sudan, East Africa and from one site in Mali, West Africa. Males were analysed morphologically and 20 characters and 10 character ratios were used in a stepwise discriminant analysis. This led to the identification of four characters with high discriminant loading scores sufficient for accurate male species identification. Male DNA was then used for the development of a PCR‐based species diagnostic based on the second internal transcribed spacer (ITS2) of the ribosomal DNA. A set of four primers was developed to generate fragment sizes that are specific to each species and can reliably identify females as well as hybrid DNA. Both the morphometric and the molecular findings of this study have important applications for studies of the epidemiology of cutaneous leishmaniasis.