The use, construction, and importance of canoes among the Maijuna of the Peruvian Amazon

Canoe construction was studied in a Maijuna community to better understand the role and significance of canoes in the life and subsistence strategies of an Amazonian group. In this community the types of canoes constructed and used by the Maijuna have changed considerably over the past 20 years. Twenty-seven species were identified as being specifically employed by the Maijuna to construct the type of dugout canoe currently being made in the community. The scarcity of preferred species used for canoe hulls directly affects the trees chosen for construction and may have been a contributing factor behind the complete switch from making the traditional type of dugout canoe.     

Inheritance, ecology and the evolution of the canoes of east Oceania

We consider patterns in the evolution of canoe technology in the eastern Pacific relative to three general processes: movement of canoe traits along the Polynesian settlement sequence, adaptations to local island environment, and post-settlement interaction between island groups. Using model selection methods on the distributions of canoe technology, we show that social and ecological covariates together consistently outperform each considered individually, though knowledge of island area and post-settlement trading spheres does not add explanatory power. In particular, decorative canoe traits are not effectively explained by either our ecological or transmission models. We also estimate negative effects from both settlement sequence and island geomorphology, consistent with the die-off of particular canoe designs on resource-rich high island groups such as Hawaii and New Zealand. This decline in measured traits may be owing to the lifting of ecological constraints on population size or building materials.     

Portage connectivity does not predict establishment success of canoe-mediated dispersal for crustacean zooplankton

Although community structure may be largely determined by local abiotic and biotic conditions under moderate levels of dispersal, anthropogenic activities can enhance dispersal rates far beyond what would otherwise occur in natural systems. We investigated the potential impact of recreational canoeing on crustacean zooplankton community structure in Killarney Provincial Park, Canada, where canoes that are transported between lakes via portage routes may enhance zooplankton community connectivity by providing a dispersal “short-cut.” We conducted a study to (1) quantify zooplankton attachment to canoe hulls after paddling through a lake and assess the importance of canoes to overall seasonal dispersal within a lake relative to other means of dispersal, (2) test the prediction that zooplankton survivorship is negatively correlated with portage duration using a mesocosm experiment, and (3) test whether variation in lake community composition was better explained by models based on reduced portage-corrected distances or true edge-to-edge distances between lakes along popular canoe routes. Here, we report the findings that canoes have the potential to act as frequent dispersal vectors, but appear to have little impact on community structure in portage-connected lakes. Substantial numbers of adult zooplankton became attached to canoe hulls and were able to establish viable populations even after exposure to portage conditions for 30 min. However, canoe-mediated dispersal only accounted for a very small proportion (<1% in this case) of overall seasonal dispersal. Moreover, environmental variables explained the greatest amount of variation in community composition among park lakes. Nevertheless, this study indicates that canoe dispersal could be more effective for specific species such as Sida crystallina than is evident by analysis of entire communities and could facilitate the spread of invasive species amenable to attaching to boat hulls. Thus, the debate about whether community composition is more strongly influenced by local environmental conditions or regional dispersal may vary depending on the scale of consideration (i.e., individual species vs. whole community).     

Biogeography and diversification of the Pacific ant genus Lordomyrma Emery

Aim This study addresses the origins of terrestrial biodiversity of the Fijian islands using the ant genus Lordomyrma (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Myrmicinae) as a model system. We derive the evolution of the genus and determine its closest extra-Fijian relatives from geological data, molecular phylogenetic reconstruction and divergence estimates. Location Ant taxa were sampled in the Southwest Pacific, Melanesia, Southeast Asia, Australia and mainland China. Methods Phylogeny and divergence estimates of the ant genus Lordomyrma based on four nuclear genes (28S, ArgK, LW Rh, CAD) plus data on Indo-Pacific geological history are used to address current hypotheses regarding the origins of the Fijian biota. Results The genus Lordomyrma probably originated in mainland Asia, with subsequent colonization of Australia and the Pacific. The Fijian Lordomyrma clade is monophyletic, and originated c. 8.8 Ma, when it diverged from a sister group in Papua New Guinea. Main conclusions The colonization of Fiji by Lordomyrma is probably a result of long-distance dispersal from New Guinea, possibly aided by island hopping across the Vitiaz Arc. The timeline of diversification in Lordomyrma is broadly congruent with the Miocene fragmentation of the Vitiaz Arc and the Pliocene emergence of Vanua Levu. The biotic shuttle hypothesis, which posits ‘Eua Island as the source of Fijian endemics, is rejected based on the sister relationship of Fiji and New Guinea lineages, as well as on the Miocene submergence of the terrane below sea level. The diversity of Fijian Lordomyrma results from the radiation of a single lineage, which diverged from a New Guinea sister group. The genus appears to have originated in Asia rather than in Australia.     

Morphological and chemical studies of the spores and parasporal bodies of Bacillus laterosporus

Spores of Bacillus laterosporus were studied to determine the chemical and morphological nature of their basophilic canoe-shaped parasporal bodies. An unusually high phosphorus content of these spores compared to other Bacillus species appeared to be associated with the parasporal body. Preparations of these "canoes" still attached to the spore coats were indeed high in phosphorus, but also in nitrogen. They were free of lipide-soluble and nucleic acid phosphorus and stained for protein. Some 50 per cent of the total nitrogen, but only 6 to 10 per cent of the total P were liberated by extraction with alkali-thioglycollate (pH 11.5) or alkali alone (pH 12.2-12.5). Proteinaceous material was recovered from these alkaline extracts and electron microscopy indicated that there had been a marked loss of "canoe" substance. Extraction with acid, removed some 80 per cent of the phosphorus associated with the "canoes" as orthophosphate. Chromatographic analyses for amino acids indicated some 14 ninhydrin-positive spots in the canoe-coat preparations whereas the whole spores contained at least 16.     

Morphological and Chemical Studies of the Spores and Parasporal Bodies of Bacillus laterosporus

Spores of Bacillus laterosporus were studied to determine the chemical and morphological nature of their basophilic canoe-shaped parasporal bodies. An unusually high phosphorus content of these spores compared to other Bacillus species appeared to be associated with the parasporal body. Preparations of these "canoes" still attached to the spore coats were indeed high in phosphorus, but also in nitrogen. They were free of lipide-soluble and nucleic acid phosphorus and stained for protein. Some 50 per cent of the total nitrogen, but only 6 to 10 per cent of the total P were liberated by extraction with alkali-thioglycollate (pH 11.5) or alkali alone (pH 12.2–12.5). Proteinaceous material was recovered from these alkaline extracts and electron microscopy indicated that there had been a marked loss of "canoe" substance. Extraction with acid, removed some 80 per cent of the phosphorus associated with the "canoes" as orthophosphate. Chromatographic analyses for amino acids indicated some 14 ninhydrin-positive spots in the canoe-coat preparations whereas the whole spores contained at least 16.     

Evolution of insular Pacific Pittosporum (Pittosporaceae): origin of the Hawaiian radiation.

We investigated the origin of Hawaiian Pittosporum and their relationship to other South Pacific Pittosporum species using internal transcribed spacer sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA. We performed both maximum-parsimony and maximum-likelihood analyses, which produced congruent results. Sequence divergence was 0.0% between Hawaiian members of Pittosporum. These taxa formed a strongly supported clade, suggesting a single colonization event followed by phyletic radiation. Sister to the Hawaiian clade were two South Pacific species, P. yunckeri from Tonga and P. rhytidocarpum from Fiji. This result presents convincing evidence for a South Pacific origin of Hawaiian Pittosporum. Our results also identify a monophyletic group comprising three species representing the Fijian Province and East Polynesia, two introductions onto New Caledonia, and at least one (but possibly two) introduction(s) onto New Zealand. Whether the New Zealand taxa form a monophyletic group is unclear from these data. Previous morphologically based hypotheses, however, suggest the presence of four different lineages occupying New Zealand. The nonmonophyly of the New Caledonian species was not surprising based on the extent of their morphological diversity. Although this latter result is not strongly supported, these species are morphologically complex and are currently the subject of taxonomic revision and molecular systematic analyses.     

Scotia Arc Acari: antiquity and origin

The Scotia Arc comprises South Georgia, South Sandwich, South Orkney and South Shetland Islands together with the Antarctic Peninsula. Free-living Acari of the Scotia Arc contain immigrant and endemic elements. Transport of immigrant species to and within the Maritime Antarctic has been via Holocene storms and ocean currents. Most immigrants are Gamasida, Oribatida and Acaridida while Actinedida dominate the endemic element. Immigrant species on South Georgia share common 'sub-Antarctic' affinities with South Indian and, to a lesser extent, South Pacific Ocean island faunas. In contrast, immigrants to the rest of the Scotia Arc and Bouvetøya on the mid-Atlantic Ridge, form a robust 'Maritime Antarctic' Province group. The endemic component is of largely Tertiary origin and, like that of Continental Antarctica, dominated by a few cosmopolitan families and genera of Actinedida. There are no bona fide pan-Antarctic species and little evidence that Continental and Maritime Antarctic faunas have a common ancestry, indeed the Continental endemic fauna is entirely montane while that of Maritime Antarctica is coastal. The presence of common Maritime Antarctic/South Pacific island genera corroborate the Antarctic Peninsula as being derived from a South Pacific island archipelago which collided with Continental Antarctica during the Tertiary period.     

Brachylaima apoplania n. sp. (Digenea: Brachylaimidae) from the Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans (Rodentia: Muridae), in New Zealand: origins and zoogeography

Brachylaima apoplania n. sp. is described from the small intestine of the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans) on Tiritiri Matangi Island, New Zealand. The new species is most similar to Brachylaima ratti Baugh, 1962, from Rattus rattus. The two species differ only in morphometric characters, B. apoplania possessing significantly smaller suckers, pharynx, testes, ovary, and cirrus sac. The close resemblance between B. apoplania and B. ratti, the close relationship between their hosts, and archaeological evidence on the origin and early dispersal of R. exulans are used to hypothesize a common Southeast Asian origin for the 2 Brachylaima species. Brachylaima apoplania is believed to have dispersed subsequently throughout the South Pacific islands, along with its rodent host, in the canoes of the ancestors of the modern Polynesians and Maoris.     

Biogeography and morphological evolution in a Pacific island ant radiation

While insular radiations are documented for many terrestrial arthropods, few examples are known for eusocial insects. This study seeks to ascertain whether the spinescence observed among Fijian Pheidole ants was inherited from an oversea ancestor or is evidence of ecological release from interspecific competitors. We broaden our understanding of morphological convergence, insular radiation and Pacific biogeography by testing three hypotheses proposed previously for the Fijian Pheidole roosevelti group: (i) the group is monophyletic; (ii) spinescence is a plesiomorphic trait inherited from an overseas ancestor; and (iii) the group is closely related to spinescent New Guinean relatives. The analysis included the fragments of two mitochondrial genes (COI, cytb) and two nuclear genes (H3, EF1α-F2) from 66 taxa, including all members of the roosevelti group, representatives from the spinescent subgenus Pheidolacanthinus, Fijian congeners and widespread Pacific congeners. Our results yield new insights into the biogeographic history of Fiji, reveal a fascinating example of convergent evolution and serve as a novel example of ecological release occurring within an insular eusocial insect lineage. These findings recover the history of a presumably unremarkable ant species that colonized a remote oceanic archipelago in the Miocene (17-10 Ma) and radiated across the emerging islands into niche-space occupied elsewhere in the Pacific by distantly related spinescent congeners. We propose the radiation of Fijian Pheidole into spinescent morphotypes was the consequence of ecological opportunities afforded by the absence of competing ant lineages with conspicuous epigaeic foraging strategies.     

Myth, Experiment, and the Reinvention of Polynesian Voyaging

Experimental canoe voyages between Hawai'i, Tahiti, and Aotearoa (New Zealand) indicate that proponents of the "mythical" view of voyaging traditions cannot casually dismiss their historical basis because they believe it impossible for canoes navigated without instruments to have been intentionally sailed over such long distances. Furthermore, the key role of Hawaiians in this reinvention of Polynesian voyaging, and in particular their efforts to extend the sailing and navigational trials far beyond the original experimental plan, point toward a more Polynesian interpretation of voyaging traditions than one developed solely through Western analytical approaches.     

Did biological control cause extinction of the coconut moth, Levuana iridescens, in Fiji?

In 1925, J.D. Tothill and two colleagues set out to manage Levuana iridescens, the coconut moth of Fiji, using biological control. By 1930, they had succeeded so completely that this pest of the copra crop had been reduced to almost undetectable levels by the tachinid fly, Bessa remota, introduced from Malaya, and they had summarized their campaign in a thoroughly documented and well-illustrated monograph. The example of the coconut moth is presented in the modern literature as the first and best documented extinction of a species due to scientific biological control. The program has been severely criticized because the moth was unique, beautiful, and considered endemic to Fiji. Thus, this program is also portrayed as an example of the highly controversial practice of neoclassical biological control. However, a careful reexamination of this event discloses that the moth was likely not native to Fiji, appeared to be spreading through the Fijian Archipelago, and might have spread to other island groups in the South Pacific. Also, L. iridescens is probably not extinct. Collateral damage, that is, non-target impacts, did occur as native zygaenid moths have been attacked by the tachinid, and they may be extinct. The reasons for the control campaign of L. iridescens were not primarily economic. Tothill and colleagues were trying to protect copra so that ethnic Fijian culture, so dependent on the coconut palm threatened by L. iridescens, could be sustained. Hence, this control program represents a difficult clash of values: preservation of insect biodiversity versus preservation of indigenous Pacific Islander cultures. A strategy to search for L. iridescens populations is proposed and development of biological control of B. remota, using hyperparasitoids, is possible, but would require careful evaluation since it might release L. iridescens from suppression, have non-target impacts on native tachinids, and lack an economic motivation.     

Lack of genetic polymorphism among peregrine falcons Falco peregrinus of Fiji

We compared levels of genetic diversity and isolation among peregrine falcons Falco peregrinus from two South Pacific island complexes (Fiji and Vanuatu: F. p. nesiotes), relative to other island and mainland populations. Fragment data from 12 microsatellite loci and sequence information from the control region of the mitochondrial DNA indicated levels of genetic variation in the South Pacific populations were lower than other island and mainland populations. Indeed, diversity varied from extremely low (Vanuatu) to completely absent (Fiji). We find little support for a hypothesis that populations on Fiji or Vanuatu were colonized via Australia. The complete lack of polymorphism in peregrine falcons of Fiji is remarkable, and to our knowledge has not been observed in a natural avian population. This lack of polymorphism, and the inability to test for decrease in polymorphism using museum samples, precludes testing whether the lack of genetic diversity in the population on Fiji is due to a recent bottleneck, or sustained isolation over evolutionary time. Increased fertility in eggs of Fiji peregrines upon outbreeding with males from other areas is consistent with inbreeding depression within a population typified by heterozygote deficiency.     

The Pitcairn Islands, South Pacific Ocean: plate tectonic and climatic contexts

The remote Pitcairn Group in the South Pacific Ocean comprises a volcanic island (Pitcairn Island), two low coral atolls (Oeno, Ducie) and a raised coralline island (Henderson Island). The geological history of these islands, on anomalously thin oceanic lithosphere, is related to the development of two subparallel island chains (Oeno-Henderson-Ducie; Pitcairn) associated with intra-Pacific plate 'hotspot' activity; the surface manifestation of this activity has been partly determined by structural lineations in the plate inherited from past plate history. The climate of the Pitcairn Islands is determined by the position of the subtropical high pressure system and the South Pacific Convergence Zone. Variations in the strength of this atmospheric circulation system, measured by changes in the Southern Oscillation index of pressure difference, provide a partial explanation of the long-term variability of mean annual rainfall at Pitcairn Island. Knowledge of past climates in the Pitcairn Group remains speculative. Maps of the Pitcairn Islands and a report of climate at Henderson Island (2/91-1/92) are included in the paper.     

Testing subspecies hypothesis with molecular markers and morphometrics in the Pacific white tern complex

To test the validity of subspecies designations of the white tern, genetic and morphological data were used to assess differences among four putative Pacific subspecies Gygis alba candida , Gygis alba rothschildi , Gygis alba pacifica , and Gygis alba microrhyncha . The origin(s) of a recent colonization of Oahu was also examined using molecular data. Samples were collected from 209 birds, representing island groups of the North and South Pacific. Culmen length and depth, longest and shortest rectrix lengths, and wing chord measurements from an earlier dataset were compared. Mitochondrial DNA variation suggests that there are no phylogenetically distinct species within the Pacific Ocean. The genetic and morphological similarity of G. a. candida and G. a. rothschildi warrants merging them into one subspecies ( G. a. candida ). Gygis alba microrhyncha and G. a. pacifica are distinctly smaller and larger than the other two subspecies, respectively, but are not completely diagnosable across the morphological characters examined. Although the Pacific subspecies do not exhibit reciprocal monophyly, there is significant genetic differentiation among the two South Pacific groups, G. a. microrhyncha , G. a. pacifica , and all other Pacific subspecies. This differentiation warrants treating these two South Pacific groups as separate management units, but not species or subspecies. Finally, the recently established population of white terns on Oahu shared haplotypes with all subspecies, suggesting multiple origins from populations across the Pacific and confirming contemporary gene flow.  © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2009, 98 , 586–595.     

Historical transoceanic dispersal of a freshwater shrimp: the colonization of the South Pacific by the genus Paratya (Atyidae)

Aim To infer the phylogenetic relationships within the freshwater shrimp genus Paratya Miers, 1882 (Atyidae) and to use these data to answer biogeographical questions about the location, timing and form of evolution of this genus in the South Pacific. Location Paratya are spread throughout various freshwater habitats in the western Pacific, with a disjunct northern range in the North Pacific (Japan, Korea, Ryukyu Islands, Siberia) and South Pacific (Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Lord Howe, Norfolk Island). Methods Specimens were obtained from throughout its range. Mitochondrial sequences of cytochrome oxidase subunit I and 16S ribosomal DNA were analysed using phylogenetic techniques to identify whether landmasses are monophyletic and what the relationships are between landmasses. Molecular clock dating methods were used to date divergences between taxa. Results Each landmass was recovered as monophyletic. Japan/Ryukyu Islands is the most basal group, followed by New Zealand. Australian specimens form a sister group to a clade made up of two groups (New Caledonia and Lord Howe/Norfolk Island). The oldest divergence within the genus (between North and South Pacific) took place 12–19 Ma. Main conclusions The geographical origin of the genus (either Gondwana or Laurasia) is unclear. Dispersal occurred between the North and South Pacific long after the split up of Gondwana. Dispersal likely explains the presence of Paratya on each landmass in the South Pacific, from continent to isolated oceanic island. This dispersal is conjectured to have taken place through oceanic currents because of the amphidromous life cycle of some taxa of Paratya, given that amphyidromy is plesiomorphic in atyid shrimp.     

Fisheries-Led Development in the South Pacific: Charting a “Pacific Way” to a Sustainable Future

Considerable debate surrounds the appropriate mix of policies to drive fishing-led development among the developing nations in the South Pacific. Since the 1970s, South Pacific small island states have committed themselves to policies of tuna industry domestication, but serious doubts have emerged as to whether these can deliver improvements to the well-being of Pacific peoples. An alternative policy approach has been suggested by development economists that would see Pacific Island nations largely abandon direct involvement in the industry and return to collective efforts to secure reasonable access fees from distant water fishing nations that take the majority of the region's tuna catches. This article argues that one reason that this policy shift has not been taken is that tuna industry domestication policies remain bound up within the influential discourse of “resource nationalism.” It is contended that any movement toward a more environmentally and developmentally sustainable ocean fisheries policy will require close engagement and transformation of this sovereignty-focused narrative.     

Electrophoretic and immunological analysis of lipopolysaccharides of Xanthomonas albilineans from three geographical regions

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) were extracted from the type species of the sugarcane leaf scald pathogen Xanthomonas albilineans from Fiji and additional isolates from Australia, Mauritius and South Africa. After resolution by sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, the LPS were visualized using a modified silver staining method and analysed by densitometric scanning. Three distinct electrophoretic patterns were identified: the LPS pattern of the Fijian isolate differed from those of the other isolates. Immunological cross-reactivity of the LPS and gamma globulins was assessed by immunoblotting. Immunoblotting showed that although IgG raised against other isolates cross-reacted with the LPS of one another, they did not react with the purified LPS of the Fijian isolate. Differences in LPS patterns and serological cross-reactivity may be due to differences in the length and conformation of the O-polysaccharide chains of the LPS.     

Ethnobotanical studies of the tribes of Andaman and Nicobar Islands,India. I. Onge

This paper deals with the ethnobotany of the Onge tribe. Brief accounts of the geography of the island, ethnology, and history of ethnobotanical studies in addition to the methodology of the present work are given. Plants used in everyday life, such as for bows and arrows, dugouts and canoes, fibers, food, medicines, and shelter, are described and discussed. The 40 species dealt with in the paper have 52 uses. The present study indicates that the Onge tribe shows certain similarities with other southeastern Asian Negrito races.     

Biogeography and evolution of the Galapagos: integration of the biological and geological evidence

Biogeographic tracks are mapped for Galapagos endemics representing 25 plant and animal taxa and including organisms with good and poor means of dispersal. These patterns confirm standard biogeographic tracks linking Galapagos with Central America, western North and South America, the Caribbean, Asia and Australasia. Discovery of the Galapagos Gore in the 1970s corroborates the biogeographic prediction for a major tectonic centre associated with the Galapagos. The biogeographic model developed by Croizat in 1958 of Galapagos colonization involving an ancestral biota inhabiting eastern Pacific geosynclinal forelands is congruent with plate tectonic models supporting a Pacific island arc origin for western American terranes. American relatives of Galapagos endemics may have originated within an eastern Pacific paleogeography rather than representing centres of origin for dispersal to the Galapagos. Galapagos colonization by an eastern Pacific biota between late Cretaceous and mid-Tertiary has significant implications for understanding the tempo and mode for both the origins of island biota and general models of evolutionary differentiation. Popular assertions that overwater dispersal represents the only viable origin for the entire Galapagos biota is no longer biogeographically or geologically tenable.