Demographic responses of adult Mesocyclops thermocyclopoides (Copepoda, Cyclopoida) to different plant and animal diets

1. We studied the effects of food type on adult females of the cyclopoid copepod Mesocyclops thermocyclopoides.
2. The test diets, covering a size range of 5–1250 μm, included a toxic strain of Microcystis aeruginosa , three algae (i.e. Chlorella vulgaris, Scenedesmus acutus and Chlorogonium elongatum ), three ciliates (i.e. Tetrahymena pyriformis, Stylonychia notophora and S. mytilus ), two rotifers (i.e. Brachionus angularis and B. calyciflorus ) and two cladocerans (i.e. Ceriodaphnia cornuta and Moina macrocopa ), and a selected subset of them in a second experiment.
3. Experimental diets were started with the last juvenile instar (C5) and data were collected on the newly moulted adult females. The survival of the copepod was less affected by food type than its reproductive output. Net reproductive rate was significantly higher with animal than with plant food. Algal diets enriched with organic extracts supported higher reproductive rates than unenriched diets of the same algal species. The large and motile alga Chlorogonium gave performances which approached those of ciliate diets.
4. The pre-reproductive period of M. thermocyclopoides was shorter and its post-reproductive period longer with animal than with plant diets, the latter being chiefly caused by a briefer period between clutches.
5. The frequency of infertile clutches increased in later clutches, indicating possible sperm limitation in females which have mated only once.
6. There was a significant, positive correlation between the size of food particles and the lifetime reproductive output of M. thermocyclopoides , with more than an order of magnitude difference in the total fecundity between the largest and the smallest food items.
7. Mesocyclops thermocyclopoides achieved the highest total fecundity with 'mixed' food, and thus, reflected the adaptive value of omnivory for this species.     

Influence of ontogenetic changes in prey selection on the survival and growth of rohu, Labeo rohita and singhi, Heteropneustes fossilis larvae

When offered a mixed diet of different zooplanktonic items covering a body size range of 75–2200 μm, (a) rohu, Labeo rohita and (b) singhi, Heteropneustes fossilis larvae ingested progressively larger prey as they grew, due to age-related increase in gape. However, a nearly constant prey size/mouth size ratio was maintained for a period of 4wk after hatching. The dominance of rotifers in the diet during the first 2-wk was followed by cladocerans, particularly Moina macrocopa. Significant differences observed in the growth rates of the larvae reared on different diet regimes were related to ontogenetic changes in prey selection. An exclusive copepod diet throughout resulted in the lowest weight gain in the larvae of both species. However, copepods had no apparent adverse effects when present with the preferred rotifers and cladocerans. Although constituting a suboptimal prey size for the older larvae, rotifers alone, when present in sufficient densities, produced growth rates comparable to those obtained on a cladoceran diet. However, a mixed diet regime contributed to the maximum growth. The implications of these findings to rearing larvae of the economically important rohu and singhi are discussed.     

不同温度条件下几种枝角类浮游动物的抑藻净水效应研究

研究了22℃、16℃两个温境、实验室系统中长刺潘、短腹平直潘、多刺裸腹潘、透明潘4种枝角类对于小球藻及铜绿微囊藻混合藻液的牧食能力及其在恒定光照条件下的净水能力。结果显示：4种枝角类在藻液初始吸光度大于0．160的情况下均可使藻液浓度下降,其摄食速度随藻类生物量增加而增加,当藻类生物量超过饱和值时,摄食速度随之下降。徐州长刺潘牧食及净水能力最强,在底泥背景下滇池短腹平直澄摄食及净水能力有所增强,透明潘摄食净水能力差,多刺裸腹潘在处理后期自身的排泄物会污染水体。     

The susceptiblity of Keratella cochlearis to interference from small cladocerans

SUMMARY. 1. Even at high population densities (300–2000 ind. 1⁻¹), only one of five small cladoceran species (adult body length <1 mm) significantly suppressed population growth of the rotifer Keratella cochlearis through interference (encounter) competition. At 500 ind. H, adults of D. ambigua (0.96 mm body length) imposed an instantaneous per capita death rate of 0.21 day⁻¹ on this rotifer. These short-term experiments may have underestimated cladoceran interference because newborn rotifers were rarely present.
2. Newborn rotifers (<12 h old) were much more susceptible than adult rotifers (> 24 h old) to interference from Ceriodaphnia dubia. All of the small cladoceran species tested were very much less likely than large Daphnia (body lengths >1.2 mm) to interfere with K. cochlearis , but perhaps at high population densities they could suppress population growth of susceptible rotifer species by damaging, and possibly eating, relatively small and soft-bodied newborn individuals.
3. K. cochlearis of the tecta form, without a posterior spine, produced offspring of the typica form, with a posterior spine, in the presence of C. dubia. This developmental response is stimulated by at least several, and possibly all, cladocerans and probably reduces the susceptibility of the rotifer to cladoceran interference.     

Combined effects of food level and inoculation density on competition between Brachionus patulus (Rotifera) and the cladocerans Ceriodaphnia dubia and Moina macrocopa

Competition among cladocerans and rotifers is of considerable interest not only due to their close similarity in life history strategies, but also due to the considerable overlap they exhibit in their feeding habits. In tropical waterbodies, several genera of cladocerans, including Ceriodaphnia and Moina occur, simultaneously with rotifers. We tested over a period of 3 weeks the combined effects of food (0.5×10⁶ and 1.5×10⁶ cells ml^–1 of Chlorella) level and rotifer density on the competition between B. patulus and C. dubia and M. macrocopa using population growth experiments. For each cladoceran species we used 30 test jars of 50 ml capacity. The initial density of cladocerans was 0.2 ind ml^–1, while for B. patulus it was either 1 ind ml^–1 or 5 ind ml^–1. Neither the maximal population density nor the rate of population increase (r) of C. dubia was significantly affected by B. patulus. However, for M. macrocopa, both these variables were negatively affected by the rotifers. The combined effects of low food level and high initial density of B. patulus resulted in a 50% reduction in the peak population density of M. macrocopa. The population growth of B. patulus was negatively influenced by the presence of C. dubia and M. macrocopa. The results of the competition experiments conducted in the present study between cladocerans and rotifers suggest the existence of a more complex and delicate interaction than is generally thought.     

Zooplankton of a flooded opencast sulphur mine

The zooplankton community of a flooded opencast sulphur mine was investigated during two years. The complicated physical and chemical relationships in this water-filled pit caused an atypical plankton assemblage. At the time of the investigation 20 species of rotifers, 6 of Cladocera, and 8 species of Copepoda were found. A single Ostracod and Chaoborus flavicans were also noted in the samples. Usually the epilimnion was monopolised by rotifers whereas the hypolimnion had a more diversified assemblage of rotifers, cladocerans and copepods. The result of clustering analysis indicated that each predator was associated with its own group of prey. Discrimination analyses showed weak seasonal differences in the zooplankton and three zones in the vertical profile – epilimnetic, upper hypolimnetic and anaerobic. Principal component analysis reduced the chemical parameters to the main contributors of conductivity (the main anions and cations) plus toxic sulphide and hydrogen sulphide. The animals were classified by the first two components into two groups: cold stenotherms and medium-sized filtrators, such as Bosmina longirostris. A specific analysis of vertical profiles generated five variants of diel vertical migrations. When time–space distributions of the plankters were analysed the highest numbers of different species were usually in different times and depths. The epilimnion was inhabited by small fishes and was dominated by rotifers but was free from C. flavicans which inhabited the cold hypolimnion, together with the remaining invertebrate predators (copepods and Asplanchna).Chaoborus and the other invertebrate predators participated more evenly in the contributions of species to the total density. In the presence of invertebrate predators the structure of the rotifer population shifted from soft-bodied species to spined or fast-moving species. When the predation pressure was too strong, as in the hypolimnion, the soft-bodied species were, in practice, absent. When the pit was in an oligotrophic state the hypolimnion population was composed of up to 60–90% rotifers. When the trophic state shifted to mesotrophy, the proportion of cladocerans increased.     

The Influence of Toxic and Filamentous Blue-green Algae on Feeding and Population Growth of the Rotifer Brachionus rubens

The effect of toxic and of filamentous blue-green algae on feeding and population growth of the rotifer Brachionus rubens was investigated in laboratory experiments. A toxic strain of Microcystis aeruginosa was ingested, but rotifers cultured with Microcystis died faster than nonfed controls. The rigid filaments of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii were not ingested, reduced the ingestion of simultaneously offered algae, and depressed population growth rates. The soft filaments of Anabaena flos-aquae were ingested at a moderate rate, did not reduce ingestion of other algae, and were used as an additional food in population growth experiments.     

铜绿微囊藻对轮虫生命表参数和表型特征的影响

为评价铜绿微囊藻的有毒(Microcystin-producing Microcystis aeruginosa)、无毒(Microcystin-free M. aeruginosa)品系对轮虫种群增长和表型特征的影响, 研究探讨了萼花臂尾轮虫(Brachionus calyciflorus)在不同微囊藻溶液中的生活史参数及形态变化。实验中各处理组单位体积总含碳量为(20.61±0.15) g C/mL, 以使轮虫获得等碳量的食物供应。实验组轮虫分别用蛋白核小球藻(Chlorella pyrenoidosa)、斜生栅藻(Scenedesmus obliquus)、有毒和无毒微囊藻溶液单独投喂, 并用有毒、无毒蓝藻菌分别与不同绿藻的混合液投喂。生命表实验结果表明, 不同微囊藻混合液投喂的轮虫净生殖率R₀ (F=102.71, df=32, P<0.001)、世代时间T (F=17.05, df=32, P<0.001)和内禀增长率r_m(F=18.89, df=32, P<0.001)与对照组相比降低1.36%—210.34%。侧棘刺长(F=28.18, df=65, P<0.001)和游泳速度(F=181.69, df=65, P<0.001)下降2.63%—39.07%, 轮虫体长(F=690.04, df=65, P<0.001)变化显著。与绿藻投喂的轮虫参数值相比, 轮虫的生命表参数和表型特征变化规律随微囊藻溶液浓度改变。萼花臂尾轮虫受到铜绿微囊藻胁迫时, 生长繁殖受到抑制并通过改变自身形态以抵御不利的生存环境。     

Effects of toxic and non-toxic cyanobacteria on the life history of tropical and temperate cladocerans

1. This study compares the effects of four toxic strains of Microcystis aeruginosa on tropical and temperate Cladocera. Survival was tested in acute toxicity experiments using Microcystis alone or in mixtures with the edible green algae Ankistrodesmus falcatus. The effect of chronic exposure on population growth was estimated in life‐table experiments by varying the proportion of Microcystis and the green alga. Nutritional deficiency was assessed using a non‐toxic cyanobacterium in a zooplankton growth experiment. Feeding inhibition was tested using a C‐labelled green alga as a tracer in mixtures with toxic Microcystis.
2. Toxicity varied consistently between Microcystis strains, while sensitivity varied consistently between cladoceran species. However, no relationship was found between sensitivity and geographical origin or cladoceran body size. Two small‐bodied cladocerans from the same tropical lake, Ceriodaphnia cornuta and Moinodaphnia macleayi, were the least sensitive and most sensitive species, respectively.
3. Surprisingly, two small tropical cladocerans survived longer without food than did three large Daphnia species and a third small tropical species.
4. Each of the three tropical Microcystis strains strongly reduced the population growth rate (little ‘r’) and reproductive output of each cladoceran, this reduction being proportional to the percentage of toxic cells in the diet.
5. As the sole food source, the non‐toxic cyanobacterium, Synechococcus elongatus, supported poor growth in M. macleayi. The nutritional deficiency was overcome when Synechococcus was mixed with either Ankistrodesmus or an emulsion rich in omega‐3 fatty acids.
6. Microcystis inhibited the feeding rate of two cladocerans, even when it comprised only 5% of a mixture with the green algae A. falcatus.
7. Differences in sensitivity to the toxic cyanobacterium appear to be associated with differences in life history between the cladoceran species rather than differences between tropical and temperate taxa. Slow‐growing species that are resistant to starvation appear less sensitive to toxic Microcystis than fast‐growing species, which also tend to die more quickly in the absence of food.     

The effect of Cyanophyta upon zooplankton in a eutrophic tropical lake (Lake Valencia,Venezuela)

The effect which Cyanophyta have upon the zooplankton varies according to the form of the alga (mucilaginous colonies or filaments) and its abundance. Periodical blooms of Microcystis aeruginosa were not detrimental for the zooplankton, in spite of the fact that copepods, cladocerans and rotifers consume small colonies. High concentrations of Lyngbya limnetica and Oscillatoria limnetica in Lake Valencia, Venezuela, proved to be inhibitory for cladocerans. A total absence of cladocerans was detected when filaments increased.     

The composition and structure of rotiferan and crustacean communities of the lower rio nhamundá, amazonas,Brazil

The crustaceans and rotifers of 17 samples from the plankton and 3 from the littoral from lakes of the lower Rio Nhamundá, an affluent of the Amazon were studied.

145 taxa of rotifers and 46 of crustaceans were found; two rotifers and three crustaceans are new to science: Keratella americana nhamundaiensis, Euchlanis triquetra var. nhamudaiensis, Echinisca superaculeata, E. sioli, and E. mira. In the taxonomical part 24 rotiferan and 22 crustacean taxa are described in more detail, drawings of them given, and partly remarks made about the geographical distribution.

In the biocenotical part the conditions of dominances were studied: Brachionus zahniseri and Keratella americana within the rotifers and Bosminopsis deitersi and Oithona amazonica within the crustaceans are the dominant species in the pelagial. In the littorial Synchaeta stylata and Stre‐blocerus pygmaeus were found to be dominant.

The species diversity and also the evenness is higher within the rotifers than in the crustaceans. By means of an index of similarity dendrograms were drawn where groups of lakes can be differentiated by using the similarity between the crustaceans. The proportion of neotropical species in relation to pantropical and cosmopolitical species is lowest in the rotifers, higher in the cladocerans and highest in the copepods at 100%.     

Long-term changes of planktonic rotifers in a subtropical Chinese lake dominated by filter-feeding fishes

1. The long-term changes (1956–1998) in density and species composition of planktonic rotifers were studied at two sampling stations (I, II) of Lake Donghu, a shallow eutrophic Chinese Lake densely stocked with filter-feeding fishes. Annual average densities of rotifers increased with an increase in fish yield and eutrophication, whilst species number decreased from 82 in 1962–1963 to 62 in 1994–1998.
2. During 1962–98, some species such as Anuraeopsis fissa , Polyarthra spp. (including P. dolichoptera & P. vulgaris ) , Trichocerca pusilla and Synchaeta oblonga increased their percentage in abundance remarkably, whilst the proportion of Keratella cochlearis decreased at two relatively eutrophic stations from 19 to 4.2% at Station I and from 30 to 3.2% at Station II.
3. The high r _max of A. fissa probably made it more successful than other rotifers under high predation pressure by planktivorous fish. The decrease in the K. cochlearis population might be attributed partly to predation by Cyclops vicinus .
4. Small rotifers were less vulnerable to fish predation than large-sized cladocerans. Decreases in cladocerans coincided with increases in rotifers, suggesting that the indirect effect of fish predation on cladocerans might have partly contributed to the population development of rotifers in Lake Donghu during recent decades.
5. We also conducted surveys (1994–1998) of seasonal dynamics of rotifers at four sampling stations (I–IV) which have varied in trophic status after fragmentation of the lake in the 1960s. A total of 75 species were identified at the four stations. Both densities and biomass of rotifers were considerably higher in the two more eutrophic stations than in the two less eutrophic stations. This indicates that the population increase of rotifers at Stations I and II during recent decades might be partly attributed to eutrophication of the lake water.     

Changes in the population dynamics of Keratella cochlearis (Gosse), Kellicottia longispina (Gosse) and Polyarthra vulgaris Carlin in a fertilized enclosure

The population dynamics of phytoplankton and zooplankton in a fertilized enclosure were studied from April 1977 to June 1978. During the first spring period, the rotifers Keratella cochlearis, Kellicottia longispina, and Polyarthra vulgaris were scarce. During the following spring, all three species were abundant. An attempt is made to explain these differences. Food resource competition from cladocerans, and the low food quality and possible inhibitory effects of Coccomyxa sp. were found to be the most likely factors limiting the growth of these rotifers during the first spring period.     

Prey capture success, feeding frequency and daily food intake rates in rohu, Labeo rohita (Ham.) and singhi, Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) larvae

Using the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus and the cladocerans Ceriodaphnia rigaudi, Moina macrocopa and Daphnia carinata as prey (food) species, the capture success (CS), frequency of feeding and total daily food intake of rohu ( Labeo rohita ) and singhi ( Heteropneustes fossilis ) larvae were determined. The CS in both rohu and singhi was a direct function of their age as well as hunger level, but at any given age it was inversely related to prey size. The larvae fed more or less continuously, even during the night hours. Gut evacuation rates were slower in singhi than in rohu. The daily food consumption rates in rohu and singhi larvae were 13.3% and 17.7% at age 6 days, and 8.0 and 10.1% of the dry body weight at age 12 days, respectively. Although as adults rohu and singhi have distinct food niches, they did not differ significantly in the larval stages in the parameters studied. The implications of these findings for larval rearing in the aquaculture of rohu and singhi are discussed.     

Effects of the blue-green alga Microcystis aeruginosa on zooplankton competitive relations

Summary Field distribution patterns and laboratory feeding experiments have suggested that blooms of colonial blue-green algae strongly inhibit relatively large-bodied daphnid cladocerans. We conducted laboratory experiments to test the hypothesis that blooms of the colonial blue-green alga Microcystis aeruginosa would shift competitive dominance away from large-bodied daphnid cladocerans toward smaller-bodied cladocerans, copepods, and rotifers. In laboratory competition experiments, increasing the proportion of M. aeruginosa in the algal food supply resulted in a shift from dominance by the relatively largebodied cladoceran Daphnia ambigua to dominace by the copepod Diaptomus reighardi. The small-bodied cladoceran Bosmina longirostris was always numerically heavily dominant over D. ambigua, but its estimated population biomasses were only slightly higher than those of D. ambigua. Daphnia ambigua consistently outcompeted the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus. Our results demonstrate that blooms of M. aeruginosa can alter zooplankton competitive relations in laboratory experiments, favoring small-bodied cladocerans and copepods at the expense of large-bodied cladocerans. However, contrary to predictions, blooms of M. aeruginosa did not improve the competitive ability of rotifers.     

Effects of unicellular and colonial forms of toxic Microcystis aeruginosa from laboratory cultures and natural populations on tropical cladocerans

Three life-table experiments, two growth experiments and one feedinginhibition experiment, were performed to study the effects of the toxiccyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa on the cladoceransofa tropical lagoon (Jacarepaguá Lagoon, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil).Differentexperimental designs were used to estimate toxic effects of both field samplesand laboratory cultures of Microcystis aeruginosa oncladoceran life history parameters and juvenile growth rates. Effects ofnutritional deficiency could be distinguished from toxic effects in experimentswhere green algae in high carbon concentration were mixed withMicrocystis. Our results show that natural assemblages ofMicrocystis caused much less pronounced toxic effects thanlaboratory cultures and that unicellular forms were more toxic than colonialforms, even though both contained high concentrations of toxins. One possibleexplanation is that colonies were too large to be ingested by the smallMoina micrura and Ceriodaphniacornuta. Feeding inhibition by single cells and small colonies seemsto be another mechanism that contributes to the harmful effects ofMicrocystis on cladocerans, both in the laboratory and inthe field. Thus, caution is needed in extrapolating results from the laboratoryto the field. We did find, however, that toxic algae in natural seston caninhibit growth and reproduction of native cladocerans populations.     

Effects of essential fatty acids and N and P-limited algae on the growth rate of tropical cladocerans

SUMMARY 1. In this study, the effects of nutrient (N and P) deficiency and the importance of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) [eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)] to tropical cladocerans, growth and reproduction were determined in a growth bioassay.
2. The animals were fed N/P-sufficient, N-deficient and P-deficient algae, and also N and P-deficient algae supplemented with fish oil emulsions rich in EPA and DHA.
3. Cladocerans showed different responses to nutrient-deficient algae and also to supplements of fish oil emulsions. Moina micrura was most sensitive to P-deficient alga and, surprisingly, grew better and produced more eggs in N-deficient alga than in N/P sufficient alga. Ceriodaphnia cornuta was less sensitive, growing well in both N and P-deficient algae. This species, however, had a lower clutch size in N-deficient alga. On the other hand, Daphnia gessneri was the most sensitive to mineral limitation, showing decreased growth and clutch size in both nutrient-deficient algae.
4. The PUFA supplements to nutrient-deficient algae increased growth rates only for M. micrura and C. cornuta , suggesting that these fatty acids are important food requirements for these species.     

Effects of Microcystis aeruginosa on interference competition between Daphnia pulex and Keratella cochlearis

Laboratory experiments tested the hypothesis that a toxic strain of Microcystis aeruginosa decreases the ability of Daphnia pulex to interfere with Keratella cochlearis. To test a variety of conditions, juvenile and adult Daphnia were exposed to the cyanobacterium for different time periods prior to, and during the experiments. Adult Daphnia not only suppressed rotifers over successive two-day intervals, but also had a significant impact within a 24-hour period. However, the presence of Microcystis (5 × 105 cells ml^–1) decreased the Daphnia effect in both experiments. Although juvenile Daphnia also significantly suppressed Keratella population growth, the presence of Microcystis (10⁵ and 5 × 10⁵ cells ml^–1) caused a significant reduction in daphniid body size and decreased the ability of both nonacclimated and acclimated daphniids to suppress rotifers. Keratella inhalation and mortality are positively correlated with filtering rates and body size of Daphnia. Therefore, the feeding rates and size structure of a Daphnia population will determine its potential to interfere with vulnerable rotifers. In all experiments the presence of Microcystis significantly decreased the ability of Daphnia to interfere with this rotifer despite the fact that Keratella was also inhibited. In the field this effect might be augmented if Microcystis colonies are more easily ingested by cladocerans than by the rotifers.     

Food limitation and body size in the life cycles of planktonic rotifers and cladocerans

This review considers what is known about the effects of food limitation upon the life cycle characteristics of rotifers and planktonic cladocerans. The characteristics considered in rotifers are the size of eggs, juveniles and adults and the durations of the juvenile phase and period of egg production. In cladocerans, the life history features dealt with are their length-weight relationships, the body size, instar stage, age and fecundity of the primiparous female and their fecundity-adult size relationship. The influence of limiting food conditions is demonstrated for these characteristics by comparison with the situation in non-limiting circumstances; the comparison is confined to experiments where food concentrations are quantified. A direct comparison is made between rotifers and cladocerans in conditions of defined food resource availability in terms of their length-weight relationships, the daily allocation of adults or near-adults to growth and reproduction and their threshold food concentrations. These comparisons are discussed in relation to the following topics: the high cost of cumulated respiration resulting from prolongation of the juvenile phase of body growth; the fundamentally different nature of growth in the two taxonomic groups; the body size of species and the size that must be attained for reproduction; the ecological implications of the very different threshold food concentrations.     

高密度鳙池塘分区养殖浮游动物群落结构及水环境特征

研究在高密度鳙和黄颡鱼、鲢混养模式下, 通过在池塘中设置1/4拦网(A组)、1/2拦网(B组)和无拦网(C组)处理和分析养殖期不同处理组的水质特征和浮游动物群落结构, 来探讨设置拦网是否会减轻浮游动物种群的生存压力, 以保证水体中大型浮游动物的生物量。结果显示, A、B组TSS明显降低(P<0.05), 但TN、TP等营养盐显著增高(P<0.05)。各处理组中的原生动物和轮虫的种类相对较多, 分别占比为30.4%—36.6% 和51.6%—57.0%, 枝角类和桡足类种类相对较少。各处理组的物种组成变化不明显, 物种多样性(H')仅在7月9日和7月23日2次采样中, A、B组显著高于C组(P<0.05), 其他时间各处理组无明显差异。各处理组中的主要优势种群为原生动物和轮虫, 但轮虫在实验后期趋于小型化。另外, 大型优势物种多刺裸腹溞Moina macrocopa随着采样时间在C组中消失, 在A、B组仍存在。轮虫和原生动物的生物量在实验期间各处理组中的变化不显著, 枝角类和桡足类总生物量则是在B组显著高于A组和C组, 说明拦网分区养殖在一定程度上能有效地减轻大型浮游动物种群的生存压力, 减缓其生物量的骤降。研究结果对维持池塘浮游动物生态平衡和增加池塘中鳙的天然饵料具有积极的指导作用。