长效重组蛋白药物发展动态

部分重组蛋白药物存在半衰期短的缺陷,临床给药频率高,且大多为注射给药,严重影响患者使用依从性。长效重组蛋白药物是近年来生物技术药物发展的重要趋势之一。对蛋白分子进行改造或修饰,延长重组蛋白药物的半衰期,实现长效以减少给药频率主要通过4种方式:化学修饰、构建突变体、蛋白融合、糖基化修饰。针对上述4种长效化方式及已上市相关产品进行了综述。展望未来,紧跟国外先进技术和质量标准发展,进一步提高国产长效重组蛋白药物质量水平,推进国内相关产品标准升级,推动创新长效重组蛋白药物开发及专利布局是未来几年国内该领域的发展方向。     

绵羊GM-CSF原核表达及蛋白功能检测

目的:构建GM-CSF原核表达载体,并诱导表达、纯化其蛋白.方法:将GM-CSF基因克隆至原核表达载体pET-32中,转化至BL21中,用智能蛋白质多维纯化系统(AKTAxpressTM)纯化目的蛋白,利用MTT法测定GM-CSF融合蛋白对绵羊外周血淋巴细胞的增殖活性.结果:成功获得了435bp的绵羊GM-CSF基因片段,诱导表达了35kDa融合蛋白GM-CSF,其纯度达95％以上,浓度达860mg/mL;通过MTT证明该融合蛋白对绵羊淋巴细胞具有增殖活性,其作用最明显的蛋白浓度是200μg/mL.结论:成功获得重组蛋白GM-CSF,该蛋白具有较好的生物活性,为免疫增强佐剂的开发奠定了基础.     

表达小鼠粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子的重组非复制型痘苗病毒的构建及鉴定

目的:以非复制型痘苗病毒天坛株为载体表达小鼠粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子(GM-CSF),并体外鉴定其生物学活性。方法:构建含有小鼠GM-CSF的重组痘苗病毒质粒,与非复制型痘苗病毒进行同源重组,筛选表达小鼠GM-CSF的重组痘苗病毒rNTVGMCSFLacZ,对目的基因及蛋白的表达进行鉴定,并在体外检测目的蛋白的生物学活性。结果:构建的重组病毒rNTVGMCSFLacZ中正确插入了小鼠GM-CSF基因,Western印迹结果表明其能正确表达GM-CSF,且在体外证明rNTVGMCSFLacZ表达的小鼠GM-CSF能分泌到细胞外,具有生物学活性。结论:构建了一株能分泌表达有生物学活性的小鼠GM-CSF的重组非复制型痘苗病毒。     

藏羊GM-CSF基因的RT-PCR扩增、序列分析及蛋白结构预测

为了研究藏羊GM-CSF基因及其编码蛋白的功能,提取藏羊脾脏总RNA,应用RT-PCR技术对藏羊GM-CSF基因进行扩增及测序,并利用DNA Star软件进行序列分析及编码蛋白结构预测。测试表明,藏羊GM-CSF基因长度为381 bp,编码127个氨基酸;藏羊GM-CSF基因与参考绵羊、藏羚羊、山羊和水牛的GM-CSF基因的核苷酸序列同源性依次为100%、99.2%、98.7%和92.1%,氨基酸序列同源性依次为100%、97.6%、96.9%和81.0%。蛋白结构预测表明GM-CSF蛋白具有1个N-糖基化位点、1个N-豆蔻酰化位点、1个粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子信号、2个蛋白激酶C磷酸化位点、3个酪蛋白激酶Ⅱ磷酸化位点;综合二、三级结构预测得出,该蛋白主要由α螺旋组成,其次是β转角和无规则卷曲,而β折叠相对较少。研究成果可为青海藏羊GM-CSF基因抗病功能的研究提供参考。     

大肠杆菌表达的重组人GM-CSF的纯化

本文对重组人粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子(rhGM-CSF)高效表达克隆pZW.GM的表达产物进行纯化,并对纯化的人GM-CSF进行了N端氨基酸序列分析。人GM-CSF基因表达产物在大肠肝菌中以不溶性包涵体形式存在,经超声破菌、包涵体抽提、凝胶过滤层析、复性、离子交换一系列纯化步骤,终产物纯度达99％,按蛋白总量计算回收率达10％,比活性达1×10~7u/mg蛋白质。通过测定纯化人GM-CSF的N端16个氨基酸序列,与由其DNA序列推导的氨基酸序列完全一致。     

神经生长因子对正常和放射线-化学复合损伤小鼠造血调节因子及其受体影响研究

目的 探究神经生长因子(NGF)对正常和放射线-化学复合损伤小鼠造血调节因子及其受体的影响.方法 用实时荧光定量PCR和酶联免疫吸附检测注射NGF后正常和经60Coγ射线照射+腹腔注射环磷酰胺(放射线-化学复合损伤,放-化复合损伤)小鼠肾脏红细胞生成素(Epo)、脾脏红细胞生成素受体(EpoR)、骨髓细胞粒-巨噬系集落刺激因子(GM-CSF) mRNA表达量和血清Epo、GM-CSF、白细胞介素-3(IL-3)浓度变化.结果 注射NGF后正常小鼠脾脏EpoR mRNA表达、放-化复合损伤小鼠血清GM-CSF、IL-3显著高于注射生理盐水的对照组.结论 NGF可以改变小鼠的造血调节因子及其受体水平,但对正常和放-化复合损伤机体,其作用各不相同.     

枸橼酸酐对原核表达重组GM－CSF的修饰作用

根据枸橼酸酐对蛋白质中的游离氨基进行化学修饰后可使蛋白质溶解度提高的原理,以大肠杆菌表达的人重组GM-CSF为模型,研究了枸橼酸酐修饰对含凝血酶识别位点的融合蛋白的作用,发现用微量枸橼酸酐修饰的重组GM-CSF变性、复性更容易,溶解度明显提高,并对凝血酶的消化更为敏感,使凝血酶用量降低100倍．GM-CSF活性测定结果证明枸橼酸酐修饰不影响其生物学活性．这些结果为枸橼酸酐修饰法在大肠杆菌表达重组蛋白纯化中的应用提供了新途径．     

α-1,6-甘露糖转移酶基因敲除的毕赤酵母菌株构建及其用于融合蛋白HSA/GM-CSF 表达的研究

酵母对蛋白的糖基化修饰过程不同于哺乳动物,其特点为产生高甘露糖型糖基且易发生过度糖基化。本研究通过两步基因重组敲除目标基因的方法成功敲除了毕赤酵母中的α-1,6-甘露糖转移酶(och1p)基因,获得了och1敲除的菌株。以此为基础,构建了高效表达人血清白蛋白与粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子融合蛋白(HSA/GM-CSF)的工程酵母,与野生型毕赤酵母表达的过度糖基化HSA/GM-CSF不同,och1敲除菌表达的该融合蛋白糖基化程度明显降低,这为该融合蛋白的开发提供了重要基础。och1敲除菌株的构建不仅提供了一个对糖蛋白进行低糖基化修饰的毕赤酵母表达系统,而且为进一步的酵母糖基工程改造提供了基础。     

GM-CSF作为Ⅱ型登革病毒E蛋白免疫佐剂的免疫效果观察

目的观察粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子(granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor,GM-CSF)作为II型登革病毒E蛋白免疫佐剂的保护效果,评估GM-CSF作为蛋白疫苗免疫佐剂的可行性。方法提取GM-CSF质粒(pCAG-GM)、将表达II型登革病毒E蛋白的重组质粒(E/pGEX-6P-1)进行诱导,表达产物用亲和层析纯化。将BALB/c小鼠随机分为E蛋白组、佐剂组(E蛋白+GM-CSF)和对照组进行免疫,采用酶联免疫吸附试验(ELISA)检测血清抗体终点效价;采用蚀斑减少中和试验(PRNT)检测II型登革病毒中和抗体水平;酶联免疫斑点试验(ELISPOT)检测小鼠免疫后细胞因子的水平;用攻毒试验观察各组小鼠保护率。结果 E蛋白组和佐剂组小鼠血清中抗体终点效价、中和抗体水平均在免疫后有一定的升高,差异无统计学意义(P0.05);佐剂组细胞因子(IFN-γ和IL-10)水平较E蛋白组均有明显上升,差异具有统计学意义(P0.05);但攻毒试验显示,佐剂组小鼠全部死亡,生存率为0,而E蛋白组的小鼠保护率为33%。结论 GM-CSF免疫佐剂可抑制II型登革病毒E蛋白的免疫保护作用,其作为蛋白疫苗免疫佐剂仍需慎重。     

壳聚糖-pJME/GM-CSF纳米DNA疫苗肌注BALB/c鼠诱导细胞免疫效应的研究

探讨载有日本脑炎病毒(Japanese encephalitis virus,JEV)prME蛋白与粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子(Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor,GM-CSF)编码基因重组子(命名为pJME/GM-CSF)的壳聚糖纳米颗粒的免疫佐剂效应及其机制。本研究采用复凝聚法制备壳聚糖-pJME/GM-CSF纳米颗粒;免疫组化法检测肌肉注射部位浸润细胞的类型,流式细胞仪检测不同免疫原免疫鼠后脾脏DC表型和功能的变化;乳酸脱氢酶释放法检测CTL活性。结果显示制备的壳聚糖-pJME/GM-CSF纳米颗粒鉴定正确;pJME/GM-CSF募集包括非成熟树突状细胞、巨噬细胞、粒细胞到注射部位,增加脾脏树突状细胞表面MHCII的表达,抗原摄取和递呈功能,增强疫苗诱导的细胞免疫反应,壳聚糖-pJME/GM-CSF纳米颗粒可进一步扩大pJME/GM-CSF的上述作用。这些结果表明壳聚糖可作为DNA疫苗肌注免疫时的传送载体,能够增强pJME/GM-CSF疫苗的细胞免疫应答。     

粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子微球制剂的体外释放研究

目的：开发一种粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子（GM—CSF）长效缓释微球剂型。方法：采用S／O／hO法制备了包裹粒细胞一巨噬细胞集落刺激因子多糖玻璃体颗粒的PLGA微球,考察了微球的表面形态、粒径分布等,并且运用ELISA方法考察了微球的体外释放效果。结果：本方法制备的粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子微球光滑圆整,粒径分布均匀,体外可以缓释达32天,累积释放率接近90％。结论：本方法制备的粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子微球能有效地保护蛋白活性,同时实现长效缓释的目标,是一种可行的蛋白缓释方案。     

Induction of IL-4 release and upregulated expression of protease activated receptors by GM-CSF in P815 cells

GM-CSF has been showed to be able to induce up-regulated receptor and cytokine expression in mast cells in inflammatory conditions. However, little is known of its effects on protease activated receptor (PAR) expression and Th2 cytokine secretion from mast cells. In the present study, we examined potential influence of GM-CSF on mast cell PAR expression and IL-4 and IL-10 release by using flow cytometry analysis, quantitative real time PCR, ELISA and cellular activation of signaling ELISA (CASE) techniques. The results showed that GM-CSF induced up to 3.0-fold increase in IL-4 release from P815 cells, and FSLLRY-NH₂ and trans-cinnamoyl (tc)-YPGKF-NH₂ did not affect GM-CSF induced IL-4 release. GM-CSF reduced tryptase and trypsin induced IL-4 release by up to approximately 55.8% and 70.3%, respectively. GM-CSF elicited the upregulated expression of PAR-1, PAR-2, PAR-3 and PAR-4 mRNAs, but enhanced only PAR-4 protein expression in P815 cells. U0126, PD98059 and LY204002 almost completely abolished GM-CSF induced IL-4 release when they were preincubated with P815 cells for 30 min, indicating ERK and Akt cell signaling pathways may be involved in the event. In conclusion, GM-CSF can stimulate IL-4 release from mast cells through an ERK and Akt cell signaling pathway dependent, but PAR independent mechanism. GM-CSF may serve as a regulator for IL-4 production in mast cells and through which participates in the mast cell related inflammation.     

Human interleukin-3 inhibits the binding of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and interleukin-5 to basophils and strongly enhances their functional activity.

The human T cell-derived cytokines interleukin (IL)-3, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and IL-5 were examined for their ability to bind specifically to human basophils and to regulate their function. Scatchard analysis of equilibrium binding studies showed that IL-3 and GM-CSF, bound to basophils with apparent dissociation constants (KD) = 8 x 10(-11) M and 3.9 x 10(-11) M, respectively. Specificity studies under conditions that prevent receptor internalization showed that the binding of IL-3, GM-CSF, and IL-5 was not inhibited by tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, IL-1 beta, interferon (IFN)-gamma, or G-CSF. However, receptors for IL-3, GM-CSF, and IL-5 interacted with each other on the basophil membrane, showing a unique spectrum of cross-reactivity, with IL-3 competing for GM-CSF and IL-5 binding, whereas GM-CSF and IL-5 showed little or no competition for IL-3 binding. In order to relate the binding properties of these cytokines to function, they were tested for their ability to influence basophil histamine release in an IgE/anti-IgE-dependent system. We found a hierarchy in the stimulation of basophil with the order of potency being IL-3 greater than GM-CSF greater than IL-5. In addition, IL-3 stimulated larger amounts of histamine release than GM-CSF or IL-5. The observation that IL-3 interacts with receptors for GM-CSF and IL-5 may have a bearing on its stronger functional effects and suggests a major role for IL-3 in the pathogenesis of hypersensitivity syndromes.     

Effect of beta2-adrenoceptor agonists and other cAMP-elevating agents on inflammatory gene expression in human ASM cells: a role for protein kinase A

In diseases such as asthma, airway smooth muscle (ASM) cells play a synthetic role by secreting inflammatory mediators such as granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), IL-6, or IL-8 and by expressing surface adhesion molecules, including ICAM-1. In the present study, PGE(2), forskolin, and short-acting (salbutamol) and long-acting (salmeterol and formoterol) beta(2)-adrenoceptor agonists reduced the expression of ICAM-1 and the release of GM-CSF evoked by IL-1beta in ASM cells. IL-1beta-induced IL-8 release was also repressed by PGE(2) and forskolin, whereas the beta(2)-adrenoceptor agonists were ineffective. In each case, repression of these inflammatory indexes was prevented by adenoviral overexpression of PKIalpha, a highly selective PKA inhibitor. These data indicate a PKA-dependent mechanism of repression and suggest that agents that elevate intracellular cAMP, and thereby activate PKA, may have a widespread anti-inflammatory effect in ASM cells. Since ICAM-1 and GM-CSF are highly NF-kappaB-dependent genes, we used an adenoviral-delivered NF-kappaB-dependent luciferase reporter to examine the effects of forskolin and the beta(2)-adrenoceptor agonists on NF-kappaB activation. There was no effect on luciferase activity measured in the presence of forskolin or beta(2)-adrenoceptor agonists. This finding is consistent with the observation that IL-1beta-induced expression of IL-6, a known NF-kappaB-dependent gene in ASM, was also unaffected by beta(2)-adrenoceptor agonists, forskolin, PGE(2), 8-bromo-cAMP, or rolipram. Collectively, these results indicate that repression of IL-1beta-induced ICAM-1 expression and GM-CSF release by cAMP-elevating agents, including beta(2)-adrenoceptor agonists, may not occur through a generic effect on NF-kappaB.     

Mechanisms of GM-CSF increase by diesel exhaust particles in human airway epithelial cells

We have previously shown that exposure to diesel exhaust particles (DEPs) stimulates human airway epithelial cells to secrete the inflammatory cytokines interleukin-8, interleukin-1beta, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) involved in allergic diseases. In the present paper, we studied the mechanisms underlying the increase in GM-CSF release elicited by DEPs using the human bronchial epithelial cell line 16HBE14o-. RT-PCR analysis has shown an increase in GM-CSF mRNA levels after DEP treatments. Comparison of the effects of DEPs, extracted DEPs, or extracts of DEPs has shown that the increase in GM-CSF release is mainly due to the adsorbed organic compounds and not to the metals present on the DEP surface because the metal chelator desferrioxamine had no inhibitory effect. Furthermore, radical scavengers inhibited the DEP-induced GM-CSF release, showing involvement of reactive oxygen species in this response. Moreover genistein, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, abrogated the effects of DEPs on GM-CSF release, whereas protein kinase (PK) C, PKA, cyclooxygenase, or lipoxygenase inhibitors had no effect. PD-98059, an inhibitor of mitogen-activated protein kinase, diminished the effects of DEPs, whereas SB-203580, an inhibitor of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, had a lower effect, and DEPs did actually increase the active, phosphorylated form of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase as shown by Western blotting. In addition, cytochalasin D, which inhibits the phagocytosis of DEPs, reduced the increase in GM-CSF release after DEP treatment. Together, these data suggest that the increase in GM-CSF release is mainly due to the adsorbed organic compounds and that the effect of native DEPs requires endocytosis of the particles. Reactive oxygen species and tyrosine kinase(s) may be involved in the DEP-triggered signaling of the GM-CSF response.     

Site-specific PEGylation of engineered cysteine analogues of recombinant human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor

Granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) stimulates proliferation of hematopoietic cells of the macrophage and granulocyte lineages and is used clinically to treat neutropenia and other myeloid disorders. Because of its short circulating half-life, GM-CSF is administered to patients by daily injection. We describe here the engineering of highly potent, long-acting human GM-CSF proteins through site-specific modification of GM-CSF cysteine analogues with a cysteine-reactive poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) reagent. Thirteen cysteine analogues of GM-CSF were constructed, primarily in nonhelical regions of the protein believed to lie away from the major receptor binding sites. The GM-CSF cysteine analogues were properly processed but insoluble following secretion into the Escherichia coli periplasm. The proteins were refolded and purified by column chromatography. Ten of the cysteine analogues could be modified with a 5-kDa maleimide PEG, and seven of the mono-PEGylated proteins were purified by ion-exchange column chromatography. Biological activities of the 13 cysteine analogues and 7 PEGylated cysteine analogues were comparable to that of wild-type GM-CSF in an in vitro cell proliferation assay using human TF-1 cells. One cysteine analogue was modified with larger 10-, 20-, and 40-kDa PEGs, with only minimal loss of in vitro bioactivity. Pharmacokinetic experiments in rats demonstrated that the PEGylated proteins had up to 47-fold longer circulating half-lives than wild-type GM-CSF. These data demonstrate the utility of site-specific PEGylation for creating highly potent, long-acting GM-CSF analogues and provide further evidence that the nonhelical regions of human GM-CSF examined are largely nonessential for biological activity of the protein.     

Long-acting stimulants for treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a focus on extended-release formulations and the prodrug lisdexamfetamine dimesylate to address continuing clinical challenges

Individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) show pervasive impairments across family, peer, and school or work functioning that may extend throughout the day. Psychostimulants are highly effective medications for the treatment of ADHD, and the development of long-acting stimulant formulations has greatly expanded the treatment options for individuals with ADHD. Strategies for the formulation of long-acting stimulants include the combination of immediate-release and delayed-release beads, and an osmotic-release oral system. A recent development is the availability of the first prodrug stimulant, lisdexamfetamine dimesylate (LDX). LDX itself is inactive but is cleaved enzymatically, primarily in the bloodstream, to release d-amphetamine (d-AMP). Several clinical trials have demonstrated that long-acting stimulants are effective in reducing ADHD symptoms compared with placebo. Analog classroom and simulated adult workplace environment studies have shown that long-acting stimulants produce symptom reduction for at least 12 h. Long-acting stimulants exhibit similar tolerability and safety profiles to short-acting equivalents. While variations in gastric pH and motility can alter the availability and absorption of stimulants released from long-acting formulations, the systemic exposure to d-AMP following LDX administration is unlikely to be affected by gastrointestinal conditions. Long-acting formulations may also improve adherence and lower abuse potential compared with their short-acting counterparts. The development of long-acting stimulants provides physicians with an increased range of medication options to help tailor treatment for individuals with ADHD.     

Atenolol,sustained-release oxprenolol,and long-acting propranolol in hypertension.

The effect of once-daily atenolol, sustained-release oxprenolol (a new formulation of oxprenolol presented as a compressed tablet in a waxed matrix), and long-acting propranolol (a new formulation presented as spheriods in a capsule) was studied in a double-blind crossover trial in 23 carefully selected hypertensive outpatients. After a run-in period with matching placebo each patient received atenolol (100 mg/day), sustained-release oxprenolol (160 mg/day), long-acting propranolol (160 mg/day), and placebo according to a randomised sequence. After four weeks'' treatment with sustained-release oxprenolol blood pressure in the two to four hours before the next dose was not significantly lower than after placebo. The effectiveness of atenolol and of the new formulation of propranolol in reducing blood pressure was confirmed. These results suggest that the present formulation of sustained-release oxprenolol should be reconsidered.     

Comparison on In Vitro Characterization of Fucospheres and Chitosan Microspheres Encapsulated Plasmid DNA (pGM-CSF): Formulation Design and Release Characteristics

Granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) is a cytokine used in the treatment of serious conditions resulting from chemotherapy and bone marrow transplantation such as neutropenia and aplastic anemia. Despite these effects, GM-CSF has a very short biological half-life, and it requires frequent injection during the treatment. Therefore, the cytokine production is possible in the body with plasmid-encoded GM-CSF (pGM-CSF) coding for cytokine administered to the body. However, the selection of the proper delivery system for the plasmid is important. In this study, two different delivery systems, encapsulated plasmid such as fucoidan–chitosan (fucosphere) and chitosan microspheres, were prepared and the particle physicochemical properties evaluated. Fucospheres and chitosan microspheres size ranges are 151–401 and 376–681 nm. The zeta potential values of the microspheres were changed between 8.3–17.1 mV (fucosphere) and +21.9–28.9 mV (chitosan microspheres). The encapsulation capacity of fucospheres changed between 84.2% and 94.7% depending on the chitosan molecular weight used in the formulation. In vitro plasmid DNA release from both delivery systems exhibited slower profiles of approximately 90–140 days. Integrity of released samples was checked by agarose gel electrophoresis, and any additional band was not seen. All formulations were analyzed kinetically. The calculated regression coefficients showed a higher r ² value with zero-order kinetics. In conclusion, the characterizations of the microspheres can be modulated by changing the formulation variables, and it can be concluded that fucospheres might be a potential carrier system for the controlled delivery of GM-CSF encoding plasmid DNA.     

Mechanism of tumour necrosis factor alpha mediated eosinophil survival

Prolonged eosinophil survival is an essential step in the late and chronic phases of allergic inflammation and is regulated by the eosinophil survival cytokines. Our work has demonstrated that tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha enhances survival (Trypan blue exclusion test) of human peripheral blood eosinophils from mildly allergic patients in a dose-dependent manner. The survival activity of TNF-alpha was inhibited by anti-TNF-RI, anti-TNF-RII antagonist antibodies and anti-granulocyte-monocyte colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) neutralizing antibodies but not by anti-interleukin (IL)-3 or anti-IL-5 antibodies. Furthermore, TNF-alpha-induced GM-CSF release from eosinophils. Anti-TNF-alpha antibodies also inhibited GM-CSF release from eosinophils induced by rat mast cell sonicate, which enhances eosinophil survival. To define the signal transduction pathway involved in GM-CSF production, eosinophils were incubated either with various mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) inhibitors (MEK, JNK, P38), or Cyclosporin A (calcineurin inhibitor), or MG-132 (proteasome inhibitor). Only the proteasome inhibitor significantly decreased both TNF-alpha-enhanced eosinophil survival (from 38.1+/-4.1% to 13.3+/-1.4%) and GM-CSF release (from 6.2+/-0.7 pg/ml to 0.3+/-0.1 pg/ml). TNF-alpha also induced nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) translocation to the nucleus, an essential step in GM-CSF mRNA production. All these findings provide evidence that NF-kappaB is involved in TNF-alpha-enhanced eosinophil survival through the regulation of GM-CSF production by eosinophils.