A new locus affects cell motility, cellulose binding, and degradation by Cytophaga hutchinsonii

Cytophaga hutchinsonii is a Gram-negative gliding bacterium, which can rapidly degrade crystalline cellulose via a novel strategy without any recognizable processive cellulases. Its mechanism of cellulose binding and degradation is still a mystery. In this study, the mutagenesis of C. hutchinsonii with the mariner-based transposon HimarEm3 and gene complementation with the oriC-based plasmid carrying the antibiotic resistance gene cfxA or tetQ were reported for the first time to provide valuable tools for mutagenesis and genetic manipulation of the bacterium. Mutant A-4 with a transposon mutation in gene CHU_0134, which encodes a putative thiol-disulfide isomerase exhibits defects in cell motility and cellulose degradation. The cellulose binding ability of A-4 was only half of that of the wild-type strain, while the endo-cellulase activity of the cell-free supernatants and on the intact cell surface of A-4 decreased by 40?%. Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of proteins binding to cellulose in the outer membrane showed that most of them were significantly decreased or disappeared in A-4 including some Gld proteins and hypothetical proteins, indicating that these proteins might play an important role in cell motility and cellulose binding and degradation by the bacterium.     

哈氏噬纤维菌吸附纤维素的影响因素

[目的]探索哈氏噬纤维菌(Cytophaga hutchinsonii)吸附纤维素的作用机制.[方法]通过比较不同因素对哈氏噬纤维菌吸附纤维素的影响,包括:菌龄、pH、温度、表面电荷、细胞活力、细胞表面蛋白、细胞表面多糖以及纤维素类似物等,寻找在吸附过程中起重要作用的细胞成分.[结果]菌体经蛋白酶及热处理,对纤维素的吸附能力完全丧失;叠氮化钠、甲醛和戊二醛处理对菌体吸附能力影响不明显;菌体经刚果红和高碘酸钠处理,吸附能力变化不大;菌体对纤维素底物的吸附具有特异性,吸附作用不受纤维二糖和羧甲基纤维素的抑制.[结论]实验表明,哈氏噬纤维菌吸附纤维素的能力与菌体表面蛋白密切相关,而受细胞的代谢活性和胞外多糖影响较小,推测细胞表面可能存在特异性的纤维素结合蛋白.     

哈氏噬纤维菌生活史中形态的变化

【目的】研究哈氏噬纤维菌Cytophaga hutchinsonii 在生活史中细胞形态的变化。【方法】利用光学显微镜、荧光显微镜和电子扫描显微镜对哈氏噬纤维菌生活状态进行详细观察。【结果】发现在饥饿状态下,长杆状菌体开始逐渐弯曲,菌体两端靠近成环形,环形菌体又进一步盘绕收缩成微小球形体,微小球形体在一定条件下能像生孢噬纤维菌的小孢囊一样萌发形成长杆状菌。另外还观察到哈氏噬纤维菌特殊的类核分裂现象。【结论】首次对哈氏噬纤维形成环形菌体和类似小孢囊的微小球形体的过程进行详细描述,为进一步揭示其形态变化与纤维素降解能力之间的关系提供依据。     

Genome sequence of the cellulolytic gliding bacterium Cytophaga hutchinsonii

The complete DNA sequence of the aerobic cellulolytic soil bacterium Cytophaga hutchinsonii, which belongs to the phylum Bacteroidetes, is presented. The genome consists of a single, circular, 4.43-Mb chromosome containing 3,790 open reading frames, 1,986 of which have been assigned a tentative function. Two of the most striking characteristics of C. hutchinsonii are its rapid gliding motility over surfaces and its contact-dependent digestion of crystalline cellulose. The mechanism of C. hutchinsonii motility is not known, but its genome contains homologs for each of the gld genes that are required for gliding of the distantly related bacteroidete Flavobacterium johnsoniae. Cytophaga-Flavobacterium gliding appears to be novel and does not involve well-studied motility organelles such as flagella or type IV pili. Many genes thought to encode proteins involved in cellulose utilization were identified. These include candidate endo-beta-1,4-glucanases and beta-glucosidases. Surprisingly, obvious homologs of known cellobiohydrolases were not detected. Since such enzymes are needed for efficient cellulose digestion by well-studied cellulolytic bacteria, C. hutchinsonii either has novel cellobiohydrolases or has an unusual method of cellulose utilization. Genes encoding proteins with cohesin domains, which are characteristic of cellulosomes, were absent, but many proteins predicted to be involved in polysaccharide utilization had putative D5 domains, which are thought to be involved in anchoring proteins to the cell surface.     

Genome Sequence of the Cellulolytic Gliding Bacterium Cytophaga hutchinsonii

The complete DNA sequence of the aerobic cellulolytic soil bacterium Cytophaga hutchinsonii, which belongs to the phylum Bacteroidetes, is presented. The genome consists of a single, circular, 4.43-Mb chromosome containing 3,790 open reading frames, 1,986 of which have been assigned a tentative function. Two of the most striking characteristics of C. hutchinsonii are its rapid gliding motility over surfaces and its contact-dependent digestion of crystalline cellulose. The mechanism of C. hutchinsonii motility is not known, but its genome contains homologs for each of the gld genes that are required for gliding of the distantly related bacteroidete Flavobacterium johnsoniae. Cytophaga-Flavobacterium gliding appears to be novel and does not involve well-studied motility organelles such as flagella or type IV pili. Many genes thought to encode proteins involved in cellulose utilization were identified. These include candidate endo-β-1,4-glucanases and β-glucosidases. Surprisingly, obvious homologs of known cellobiohydrolases were not detected. Since such enzymes are needed for efficient cellulose digestion by well-studied cellulolytic bacteria, C. hutchinsonii either has novel cellobiohydrolases or has an unusual method of cellulose utilization. Genes encoding proteins with cohesin domains, which are characteristic of cellulosomes, were absent, but many proteins predicted to be involved in polysaccharide utilization had putative D5 domains, which are thought to be involved in anchoring proteins to the cell surface.     

Characterization of a multi-function processive endoglucanase CHU_2103 from Cytophaga hutchinsonii

Cytophaga hutchinsonii is a Gram-negative gliding bacterium which can efficiently degrade crystalline cellulose by an unknown strategy. Genomic analysis suggests the C. hutchinsonii genome lacks homologs to an obvious exoglucanase that previously seemed essential for cellulose degradation. One of the putative endoglucanases, CHU_2103, was successfully expressed in Escherichia coli JM109 and identified as a processive endoglucanase with transglycosylation activity. It could hydrolyze carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) into cellodextrins and rapidly decrease the viscosity of CMC. When regenerated amorphous cellulose (RAC) was degraded by CHU_2103, the ratio of the soluble to insoluble reducing sugars was 3.72 after 3 h with cellobiose and cellotriose as the main products, indicating that CHU_2103 was a processive endoglucanase. CHU_2103 could degrade cellodextrins of degree of polymerization ≥3. It hydrolyzed p-nitrophenyl β-d-cellodextrins by cutting glucose or cellobiose from the non-reducing end. Meanwhile, some larger-molecular-weight cellodextrins could be detected, indicating it also had transglycosylation activity. Without carbohydrate-binding module (CBM), CHU_2103 could bind to crystalline cellulose and acted processively on it. Site-directed mutation of CHU_2103 demonstrated that the conserved aromatic amino acid W197 in the catalytic domain was essential not only for its processive activity, but also its cellulose binding ability.     

Scanning electron microscopy of Acholeplasma colonies on agar

The colony formation and morphology of Acholeplasma laidlawii and of an Acholeplasma species was studied by scanning electron microscopy. In the colonies of both Acholeplasma spp. large irregularly shaped cells, spherical cells, chains of beads, and long filaments with small bulbous distensions were seen. The membrane of some of the large cells seemed to be perforated, giving the cell a pitted appearance.     

Characterization of a family 5 glycoside hydrolase isolated from the outer membrane of cellulolytic Cytophaga hutchinsonii

Cytophaga hutchinsonii is an abundant aerobic cellulolytic bacterium that rapidly digests crystalline cellulose in a contact-dependent manner. The different roles of various predicted glycoside hydrolases and the detailed mechanism used by C. hutchinsonii in cellulose digestion are, however, not known. In this study, an endoglucanase belonging to glycoside hydrolase family 5 (GH5) named as ChCel5A was isolated from the outer membrane of C. hutchinsonii. The catalytic domain of ChCel5A exhibited typical endoglucanase activity and was capable of hydrolyzing insoluble cellulose with cellobiose and cellotriose as the predominant digestion products. Site-directed mutagenesis identified two aromatic amino acids in ChCle5A, W61 and W308, that dramatically decreased its hydrolytic activity toward filter paper while causing only a slight decrease in carboxymethylcellulase (CMCase) activity. Disruption of chu_1107 encoding ChCel5A caused no drastic effect on the growth parameters on cellulose for the resulting mutant strain with negligible reduction in the specific CMCase activities for intact cells. The demonstration of targeted gene inactivation capability for C. hutchinsonii has provided an opportunity to improve understanding of the details of the mechanism underlying its efficient utilization of cellulose.     

FLP-FRT-Based Method To Obtain Unmarked Deletions of CHU_3237 (porU) and Large Genomic Fragments of Cytophaga hutchinsonii

Cytophaga hutchinsonii is a widely distributed cellulolytic bacterium in the phylum Bacteroidetes. It can digest crystalline cellulose rapidly without free cellulases or cellulosomes. The mechanism of its cellulose utilization remains a mystery. We developed an efficient method based on a linear DNA double-crossover and FLP-FRT recombination system to obtain unmarked deletions of both single genes and large genomic fragments in C. hutchinsonii. Unmarked deletion of CHU_3237 (porU), an ortholog of the C-terminal signal peptidase of a type IX secretion system (T9SS), resulted in defects in colony spreading, cellulose degradation, and protein secretion, indicating that it is a component of the T9SS and that T9SS plays an important role in cellulose degradation by C. hutchinsonii. Furthermore, deletions of four large genomic fragments were obtained using our method, and the sizes of the excised fragments varied from 9 to 19 kb, spanning from 6 to 22 genes. The customized FLP-FRT method provides an efficient tool for more rapid progress in the cellulose degradation mechanism and other physiological aspects of C. hutchinsonii.