Inactivation of the Phosphoenolpyruvate-Dependent Phosphotransferase System in Various Species of Bacteria by Vinylglycolic Acid

The alkenoic hydroxyacid 2-hydroxy-3-butenoic acid (vinylglycolate) specifically inhibited the phosphotransferase system in a variety of bacteria while not affecting respiration-coupled transport systems.     

Chemotaxis towards sugars by Bacillus subtilis.

Many sugars and derivatives were tested in the capillary assay for their attraction of Bacillus subtilis. The major attractants were 2-deoxy-D-glucose, D-fructose, gentiobiose, D-glucose, maltose, D-mannitol, D-mannose, N-acetylglucosamine, alpha-methyl-D-glucoside, beta-methyl-D-glucoside, N-acetylmannosamine, alpha-methyl-D-mannoside, D-sorbitol, L-sorbose, sucrose, trehalose and D-xylose. Only glucose chemotaxis was completely constitutive. Competition experiments were carried out to determine the specificities of chemoreceptors. There were 25 instances of no influence of two sugars on each other's taxis, 92 instances of one sugar interfering non-reciprocally with chemotaxis towards another and 49 instances of two sugars reciprocally competing. However, in most of the last instances, other sugars were identified that interfered with chemotaxis towards one member of the pair but not the other. Thus, nearly all sugars and related compounds appear to be detected by their own chemoreceptors, but many secondary interactions exist.     

Protein Folding Modulates the Swapped Dimerization Mechanism of Methyl-Accepting Chemotaxis Heme Sensors

The periplasmic sensor domains GSU0582 and GSU0935 are part of methyl accepting chemotaxis proteins in the bacterium Geobacter sulfurreducens. Both contain one c-type heme group and their crystal structures revealed that these domains form swapped dimers with a PAS fold formed from the two protein chains. The swapped dimerization of these sensors is related to the mechanism of signal transduction and the formation of the swapped dimer involves significant folding changes and conformational rearrangements within each monomeric component. However, the structural changes occurring during this process are poorly understood and lack a mechanistic framework. To address this issue, we have studied the folding and stability properties of two distinct heme-sensor PAS domains, using biophysical spectroscopies. We observed substantial differences in the thermodynamic stability (ΔG = 14.6 kJ.mol⁻¹ for GSU0935 and ΔG = 26.3 kJ.mol⁻¹ for GSU0582), and demonstrated that the heme moiety undergoes conformational changes that match those occurring at the global protein structure. This indicates that sensing by the heme cofactor induces conformational changes that rapidly propagate to the protein structure, an effect which is directly linked to the signal transduction mechanism. Interestingly, the two analyzed proteins have distinct levels of intrinsic disorder (25% for GSU0935 and 13% for GSU0582), which correlate with conformational stability differences. This provides evidence that the sensing threshold and intensity of the propagated allosteric effect is linked to the stability of the PAS-fold, as this property modulates domain swapping and dimerization. Analysis of the PAS-domain shows that disorder segments are found either at the hinge region that controls helix motions or in connecting segments of the β-sheet interface. The latter is known to be widely involved in both intra- and intermolecular interactions, supporting the view that it''s folding and stability are at the basis of the specificity and regulation of many types of PAS-containing signaling proteins.     

Isolation and Genetic Study of Erwinia Mutants Devoid of Common Components of the Phosphoenolpyruvate-Dependent Phosphotransferase System

Mutants of bacteria belonging the genus Erwinia(Erwinia chrysanthemi andErwinia carotovora) with pleiotropic disturbances in the utilization of many substrates were obtained through chemical and transposon mutagenesis. Genetic studies revealed that these mutants had defective ptsI or ptsH genes responsible for the synthesis of common components of the phosphoenolpyruvate-dependent phosphotransferase system, enzyme I and the HPr protein, respectively. The ptsI ⁺ allele in both Erwinia species was cloned in vivo. Mapping of obtained mutations indicated that theptsIand ptsH genes ofE. chrysanthemi do not constitute a linkage group. The ptsI gene is located at 100 min of the chromosomal map, whereas theptsH gene is located at 175 min. Sequencing of a portion of theE. chrysanthemi ptsI gene showed that a product of the cloned DNA region had up to 68% homology with the N terminus of Escherichia coli enzyme I.     

How Phosphotransferase System-Related Protein Phosphorylation Regulates Carbohydrate Metabolism in Bacteria

The phosphoenolpyruvate(PEP):carbohydrate phosphotransferase system (PTS) is found only in bacteria, where it catalyzes the transport and phosphorylation of numerous monosaccharides, disaccharides, amino sugars, polyols, and other sugar derivatives. To carry out its catalytic function in sugar transport and phosphorylation, the PTS uses PEP as an energy source and phosphoryl donor. The phosphoryl group of PEP is usually transferred via four distinct proteins (domains) to the transported sugar bound to the respective membrane component(s) (EIIC and EIID) of the PTS. The organization of the PTS as a four-step phosphoryl transfer system, in which all P derivatives exhibit similar energy (phosphorylation occurs at histidyl or cysteyl residues), is surprising, as a single protein (or domain) coupling energy transfer and sugar phosphorylation would be sufficient for PTS function. A possible explanation for the complexity of the PTS was provided by the discovery that the PTS also carries out numerous regulatory functions. Depending on their phosphorylation state, the four proteins (domains) forming the PTS phosphorylation cascade (EI, HPr, EIIA, and EIIB) can phosphorylate or interact with numerous non-PTS proteins and thereby regulate their activity. In addition, in certain bacteria, one of the PTS components (HPr) is phosphorylated by ATP at a seryl residue, which increases the complexity of PTS-mediated regulation. In this review, we try to summarize the known protein phosphorylation-related regulatory functions of the PTS. As we shall see, the PTS regulation network not only controls carbohydrate uptake and metabolism but also interferes with the utilization of nitrogen and phosphorus and the virulence of certain pathogens.     

The Histidine-Phosphocarrier Protein of the Phosphoenolpyruvate: Sugar Phosphotransferase System of Bacillus sphaericus Self-Associates

The phosphotransferase system (PTS) is involved in the use of carbon sources in bacteria. Bacillus sphaericus, a bacterium with the ability to produce insecticidal proteins, is unable to use hexoses and pentoses as the sole carbon source, but it has ptsHI genes encoding the two general proteins of the PTS: enzyme I (EI) and the histidine phosphocarrier (HPr). In this work, we describe the biophysical and structural properties of HPr from B. sphaericus, HPr^bs, and its affinity towards EI of other species to find out whether there is inter-species binding. Conversely to what happens to other members of the HPr family, HPr^bs forms several self-associated species. The conformational stability of the protein is low, and it unfolds irreversibly during heating. The protein binds to the N-terminal domain of EI from Streptomyces coelicolor, EIN^sc, with a higher affinity than that of the natural partner of EIN^sc, HPr^sc. Modelling of the complex between EIN^sc and HPr^bs suggests that binding occurs similarly to that observed in other HPr species. We discuss the functional implications of the oligomeric states of HPr^bs for the glycolytic activity of B. sphaericus, as well as a strategy to inhibit binding between HPr^sc and EIN^sc.     

Properties of Mutants of Bacteria Belonging the Genus Erwinia Devoid of Common Components of the Phosphoenolpyruvate-Dependent Phosphotransferase System

Biochemical consequences of mutational damage to common components of the Erwinia phosphoenolpyruvate-dependent phosphotransferase system (the HPr protein and enzyme I) were studied. The transport of glucose, mannose, fructose, and mannitol inErwinia was shown to require a preliminary induction of proteins of the phosphotransferase system. A drastic decrease in the rate of the transport of these carbohydrates was observed in ptsI and ptsH mutants. A disturbance in the common components suppresses the synthesis of inducible enzymes (-galactosidase, complexes of pectolate lyases and cellulases) and renders it resistant to catabolite repression by glucose, but mutants were shown to retain intracellular cAMP content. Erwinia mutants devoid of common components of the system lack phytopathogenic features. The appearance of an intact ptsI allele in the cell completely repaired pleiotropic disturbances in these mutants.     

Protein secretion by minicells of Bacillus subtilis

Summary The minicell producing strain Bacillus subtilis IA292 was transformed with plasmids encoding the Bacillus enzymes -glucanase, -amylase and neutral protease. Purified minicells were shown to be free of detectable proteolytic activity. Minicells containing plasmids were found to synthesise all three enzymes internally, but evidence of secretion was only observed in the unique case of neutral protease secretion by minicells prepared from cultures grown in BHI medium.     

Chemotaxis of Azotobacter vinelandii and Bacillus subtilis in a mixed culture

In the mixed culture of Azotobacter vinelandii and Bacillus subtilis, chemotaxis of Azotobacter to glucose remained unchanged, while that of bacilli decreased. Microelectrophoresis demonstrated adhesion of the A. vinelandii polysaccharide on the surface of B. subtilis cells. In the presence of 0.05–1.0 g/L of this biopolymer, the chemotaxis of bacilli to glucose decreased 2.6 to 6.8 times. A. vinelandii polysaccharide molecules adherent on the surface of B. subtilis cells were suggested to block bacillary chemotactic receptors, resulting in a decrease in their directed motility in the mixed culture.     

The ESX System in Bacillus subtilis Mediates Protein Secretion

Esat-6 protein secretion systems (ESX or Ess) are required for the virulence of several human pathogens, most notably Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Staphylococcus aureus. These secretion systems are defined by a conserved FtsK/SpoIIIE family ATPase and one or more WXG100 family secreted substrates. Gene clusters coding for ESX systems have been identified amongst many organisms including the highly tractable model system, Bacillus subtilis. In this study, we demonstrate that the B. subtilis yuk/yue locus codes for a nonessential ESX secretion system. We develop a functional secretion assay to demonstrate that each of the locus gene products is specifically required for secretion of the WXG100 virulence factor homolog, YukE. We then employ an unbiased approach to search for additional secreted substrates. By quantitative profiling of culture supernatants, we find that YukE may be the sole substrate that depends on the FtsK/SpoIIIE family ATPase for secretion. We discuss potential functional implications for secretion of a unique substrate.     

The conserved cytoplasmic module of the transmembrane chemoreceptor McpC mediates carbohydrate chemotaxis in Bacillus subtilis

Escherichia coli cells use two distinct sensory circuits during chemotaxis towards carbohydrates. One circuit requires the phosphoenolpyruvate-dependent phosphotransferase system (PTS) and is independent of any specific chemoreceptor, whereas the other uses a chemoreceptor-dependent sensory mechanism analogous to that used during chemotaxis towards amino acids. Work on the carbohydrate chemotaxis sensory circuit of Bacillus subtilis reported in this article indicates that the B. subtilis circuit is different from either of those used by E. coli. Our chemotactic analysis of B. subtilis strains expressing various chimeric chemoreceptors indicates that the cytoplasmic, C-terminal module of the chemoreceptor McpC acts as a sensory-input element during carbohydrate chemotaxis. Our results also indicate that PTS-mediated carbohydrate transport, but not carbohydrate metabolism, is required for production of a chemotactic signal. We propose a model in which PTS-transport-induced chemotactic signals are transmitted to the C-terminal module of McpC for control of chemotaxis towards PTS carbohydrates.     

Regulation of polyglutamic acid synthesis by glutamate in Bacillus licheniformis and Bacillus subtilis

The synthesis of polyglutamic acid (PGA) was repressed by exogenous glutamate in strains of Bacillus licheniformis but not in strains of Bacillus subtilis, indicating a clear difference in the regulation of synthesis of capsular slime in these two species. Although extracellular gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase (GGT) activity was always present in PGA-producing cultures of B. licheniformis under various growth conditions, there was no correlation between the quantity of PGA and enzyme activity. Moreover, the synthesis of PGA in the absence of detectable GGT activity in B. subtilis S317 indicated that this enzyme was not involved in PGA biosynthesis in this bacterium. Glutamate repression of PGA biosynthesis may offer a simple means of preventing unwanted slime production in industrial fermentations using B. licheniformis.     

Regulation of Polyglutamic Acid Synthesis by Glutamate in Bacillus licheniformis and Bacillus subtilis

The synthesis of polyglutamic acid (PGA) was repressed by exogenous glutamate in strains of Bacillus licheniformis but not in strains of Bacillus subtilis, indicating a clear difference in the regulation of synthesis of capsular slime in these two species. Although extracellular γ-glutamyltranspeptidase (GGT) activity was always present in PGA-producing cultures of B. licheniformis under various growth conditions, there was no correlation between the quantity of PGA and enzyme activity. Moreover, the synthesis of PGA in the absence of detectable GGT activity in B. subtilis S317 indicated that this enzyme was not involved in PGA biosynthesis in this bacterium. Glutamate repression of PGA biosynthesis may offer a simple means of preventing unwanted slime production in industrial fermentations using B. licheniformis.