An interaction between a specialized seed predator moth and its dioecious host plant shifting from parasitism to mutualism

Seed predator/pollinator and host plant interactions, which may be considered as antagonistic, have the potential to provide good model systems for the study of the early stages of evolution towards mutualism. I describe a relationship between a seed predator, the geometrid moth Perizoma affinitatum , and the dioecious plant Silene dioica . The moth is an obligate seed predator on its host plant. The searching and ovipositing behaviour of the female moths, number of eggs deposited per flower, the pollinating ability of the moths and the seed consumption by the larvae are described as different parameters and studied in two Finnish coastal populations. A high pollinating ability and limited seed consumption by the predator was found and discussed in relation to fitness models of P. affinitatum and S. dioica . In a mutualistic relationship there must be a balance between the costs and benefits so that the seed production by the moths is larger than the seed consumption by the larvae, given a net seed output larger than zero. The data of the parameters included in a seed production/consumption model give a positive seed output when the proportion of S. dioica flowers pollinated by other non-predating insects is less than 60%. Accordingly, even if P. affinitatum would become the exclusive pollinator it would not endanger the survival of the host plant and both partners would benefit from this interaction. Limited seed consumption, high pollinating ability and host specificity as seen in the P. affinitatum and S. dioica interaction are considered to have been important pre-existing qualities in the evolution of the obligate mutualisms between yucca and yucca moths and fig and fig wasps. In isolated serpentine populations where the gene flow is restricted and co-pollinators are rare the interaction between P. affinitatum and S. dioica has the potential to shift from parasitism to mutualism.     

Assembling a mutualism: ant symbionts locate their host plants by detecting volatile chemicals

In most mutualisms, partners disperse independently of each other. For instance, in ant-plant symbioses, plants disperse as seeds, and ants disperse as winged queens. For an ant-plant mutualism to persist, therefore, queens must be able to locate and colonise host plant saplings. It has been suggested that host plants emit volatile chemical cues that attract dispersing queens, but this has never been demonstrated experimentally. We used a Y-tube olfactometry protocol to test this hypothesis in the tropical understorey antplant Cordia nodosa Lam. (Boraginaceae), which associates with two genera of ants, Azteca (Dolichoderinae) and Allomerus (Myrmicinae). Both genera show significant attraction to the volatiles of C. nodosa over control understorey plant species that do not associate with ants. These results support the hypothesis that ants are attracted to volatiles emitted by their host plant and suggest a key preadaptation that promoted the evolution of ant-plant symbioses. Received 1 July 2005; revised 2 November 2005; accepted 8 November 2005.     

The indirect consequences of a mutualism: comparing positive and negative components of the net interaction between honeydew-tending ants and host plants

1. In ecological webs, net indirect interactions between species are composed of interactions that vary in sign and magnitude. Most studies have focused on negative component interactions (e.g. predation, herbivory) without considering the relative importance of positive interactions (e.g. mutualism, facilitation) for determining net indirect effects. 2. In plant/arthropod communities, ants have multiple top-down effects via mutualisms with honeydew-producing herbivores and harassment of and predation on other herbivores; these ant effects provide opportunities for testing the relative importance of positive and negative interspecific interactions. We manipulated the presence of ants, honeydew-producing membracids and leaf-chewing beetles on perennial host plants in field experiments in Colorado to quantify the relative strength of these different types of interactions and their impact on the ant's net indirect effect on plants. 3. In 2007, we demonstrated that ants simultaneously had a positive effect on membracids and a negative effect on beetles, resulting in less beetle damage on plants hosting the mutualism. 4. In 2008, we used structural equation modelling to describe interaction strengths through the entire insect herbivore community on plants with and without ants. The ant's mutualism with membracids was the sole strong interaction contributing to the net indirect effect of ants on plants. Predation, herbivory and facilitation were weak, and the net effect of ants reduced plant reproduction. This net indirect effect was also partially because of behavioural changes of herbivores in the presence of ants. An additional membracid manipulation showed that the membracid's effect on ant activity was largely responsible for the ant's net effect on plants; ant workers were nearly ten times as abundant on plants with mutualists, and effects on other herbivores were similar to those in the ant manipulation experiment. 5. These results demonstrate that mutualisms can be strong relative to negative direct interspecific interactions and that positive interactions deserve attention as important components of ecological webs.     

A carnivorous plant fed by its ant symbiont: a unique multi-faceted nutritional mutualism

Scarcity of essential nutrients has led plants to evolve alternative nutritional strategies, such as myrmecotrophy (ant-waste-derived nutrition) and carnivory (invertebrate predation). The carnivorous plant Nepenthes bicalcarata grows in the Bornean peatswamp forests and is believed to have a mutualistic relationship with its symbiotic ant Camponotus schmitzi. However, the benefits provided by the ant have not been quantified. We tested the hypothesis of a nutritional mutualism, using foliar isotopic and reflectance analyses and by comparing fitness-related traits between ant-inhabited and uninhabited plants. Plants inhabited by C. schmitzi produced more leaves of greater area and nitrogen content than unoccupied plants. The ants were estimated to provide a 200% increase in foliar nitrogen to adult plants. Inhabited plants also produced more and larger pitchers containing higher prey biomass. C. schmitzi-occupied pitchers differed qualitatively in containing C. schmitzi wastes and captured large ants and flying insects. Pitcher abortion rates were lower in inhabited plants partly because of herbivore deterrence as herbivory-aborted buds decreased with ant occupation rate. Lower abortion was also attributed to ant nutritional service. The ants had higher δ(15)N values than any tested prey, and foliar δ(15)N increased with ant occupation rate, confirming their predatory behaviour and demonstrating their direct contribution to the plant-recycled N. We estimated that N. bicalcarata derives on average 42% of its foliar N from C. schmitzi wastes, (76% in highly-occupied plants). According to the Structure Independent Pigment Index, plants without C. schmitzi were nutrient stressed compared to both occupied plants, and pitcher-lacking plants. This attests to the physiological cost of pitcher production and poor nutrient assimilation in the absence of the symbiont. Hence C. schmitzi contributes crucially to the nutrition of N. bicalcarata, via protection of assimilatory organs, enhancement of prey capture, and myrmecotrophy. This combination of carnivory and myrmecotrophy represents an outstanding strategy of nutrient sequestration.     

Nanodiscs unravel the interaction between the SecYEG channel and its cytosolic partner SecA

The translocon is a membrane-embedded protein assembly that catalyzes protein movement across membranes. The core translocon, the SecYEG complex, forms oligomers, but the protein-conducting channel is at the center of the monomer. Defining the properties of the SecYEG protomer is thus crucial to understand the underlying function of oligomerization. We report here the reconstitution of a single SecYEG complex into nano-scale lipid bilayers, termed Nanodiscs. These water-soluble particles allow one to probe the interactions of the SecYEG complex with its cytosolic partner, the SecA dimer, in a membrane-like environment. The results show that the SecYEG complex triggers dissociation of the SecA dimer, associates only with the SecA monomer and suffices to (pre)-activate the SecA ATPase. Acidic lipids surrounding the SecYEG complex also contribute to the binding affinity and activation of SecA, whereas mutations in the largest cytosolic loop of the SecY subunit, known to abolish the translocation reaction, disrupt both the binding and activation of SecA. Altogether, the results define the fundamental contribution of the SecYEG protomer in the translocation subreactions and illustrate the power of nanoscale lipid bilayers in analyzing the dynamics occurring at the membrane.     

Exploiting a mutualism: parasite specialization on cultivars within the fungus-growing ant symbiosis

Fungus-growing ants, their cultivated fungi and the cultivar-attacking parasite Escovopsis coevolve as a complex community. Higher-level phylogenetic congruence of the symbionts suggests specialized long-term associations of host-parasite clades but reveals little about parasite specificity at finer scales of species-species and genotype-genotype interactions. By coupling sequence and amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping analyses with experimental evidence, we examine (i) the host specificity of Escovopsis strains infecting colonies of three closely related ant species in the genus Cyphomyrmex, and (ii) potential mechanisms constraining the Escovopsis host range. Incongruence of cultivar and ant relationships across the three focal Cyphomyrmex spp. allows us to test whether Escovopsis strains track their cultivar or the ant hosts. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrate that the Escovopsis phylogeny matches the cultivar phylogeny but not the ant phylogeny, indicating that the parasites are cultivar specific. Cross-infection experiments establish that ant gardens can be infected by parasite strains with which they are not typically associated in the field, but that infection is more likely when gardens are inoculated with their typical parasite strains. Thus, Escovopsis specialization is shaped by the parasite's ability to overcome only a narrow range of garden-specific defences, but specialization is probably additionally constrained by ecological factors, including the other symbionts (i.e. ants and their antibiotic-producing bacteria) within the coevolved fungus-growing ant symbiosis.     

Punishment and partner switching cause cooperative behaviour in a cleaning mutualism

What are the mechanisms that prevent partners from cheating in potentially cooperative interactions between unrelated individuals? The cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus and client reef fish both benefit from an interaction as long as the cleaner eats ectoparasites. However, the cleaner fish prefers some client mucus, which constitutes cheating. Field observations suggested that clients control such cheating by using punishment (chasing the cleaner) or by switching partners (fleeing from the cleaner). Here, we tested experimentally whether such client behaviours result in cooperative cleaner fish. Cleaners were allowed to feed from Plexiglas plates containing prawn items and fish flake items. A lever attached to the plates allowed us to mimic the behaviours of clients. As cleaners showed a strong preference for prawn over flakes, we taught them that eating their preferred food would cause the plate to either chase them or to flee, while feeding on flakes had no negative consequences. We found a significant shift in cleaner fish foraging behaviour towards flake feeding after six learning trials. As punishment and terminating an interaction resulted in the cleaners feeding against their preferences in our experiment, we propose that the same behaviours in clients improve the service quality of cleaners under natural conditions.     

Asymmetric cheating opportunities and partner control in a cleaner fish mutualism

How can cooperation persist if, for one partner, cheating is more profitable than cooperation in each round, while the other partner has no option to cheat? Our laboratory experiments suggest that such a situation exists between the cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus and its nonpredatory client reef fish species, which actively seek cleaners to have their ectoparasites removed. Clients Ctenochaetus striatus regularly jolted in response to cleaner mouth contact, and these jolts were not linked to the removal of parasites. In addition, cleaners did not search for parasites but fed on mucus when exposed to anaesthetized clients, which could not control the cleaners' behaviour. Field data showed that clients often terminated an interaction immediately after a jolt. Client species with access to only one cleaning station, owing to their small territories or home ranges, terminated interactions mainly by chasing cleaners while clients with access to two or more cleaning stations mainly swam away. Thus, the chasing of cleaners appeared to be a form of punishment, imposing costs on the cleaner at the client's (momentary) expense. Chasing yields future benefits, as jolts were on average less frequent during interactions between cleaners and individuals that had terminated their previous interaction by aggressive chasing.     

Using chimeric hypoviruses to fine-tune the interaction between a pathogenic fungus and its plant host

Infectious cDNA clones of mild (CHV1-Euro7) and severe (CHV1-EP713) hypovirus strains responsible for virulence attenuation (hypovirulence) of the chestnut blight fungus Cryphonectria parasitica were used to construct viable chimeric viruses. Differences in virus-mediated alterations of fungal colony morphology, growth rate, and canker morphology were mapped to a region of open reading frame B extending from nucleotides 2,363 to 9, 904. By swapping domains within this region, it was possible to generate chimeric hypovirus-infected C. parasitica isolates that exhibited a spectrum of defined colony and canker morphologies. Several severe strain traits were observed to be dominant. It was also possible to uncouple the severe strain traits of small canker size and suppression of asexual sporulation. For example, fungal isolates infected with a chimera containing nucleotides 2363 through 5310 from CHV1-Euro7 in a CHV1-713 background formed small cankers that were similar in size to that caused by CHV1-EP713-infected isolates but with the capacity for producing asexual spores at levels approaching that observed for fungal isolates infected with the mild strain. These results demonstrate that hypoviruses can be engineered to fine-tune the interaction between a pathogenic fungus and its plant host. The identification of specific hypovirus domains that differentially contribute to canker morphology and sporulation levels also provides considerable utility for continuing efforts to enhance biological control potential by balancing hypovirulence and ecological fitness.     

Cautionary tail: the presence of an N-terminal tag on dynein light-chain Roadblock/LC7 affects its interaction with a functional partner

As part of structural investigations of components of the molecular motor, dynein, we prepared the light chain, Robl1_mouse, with and without an N-terminal His-tag. We found that the His-tag introduced a spurious binding site for a second protein, IC74. We propose a molecular mechanism for functional interference by the His-tag.     

The triple alliance: how a plant-ant, living in an ant-plant, acquires the third partner, a scale insect

Summary. Mutualistic associations between ants and plants often involve a third partner, scale insects (Hemiptera, Coccoidea). In southeast Asia, plant-ants of the genus Cladomyrma live together with coccoids in hollowed twigs of a wide range of ant-plants (myrmecophytes). Established colonies never lack sap-sucking scale insects and the ants appear to be dependent on the honeydew excretions of their trophobionts. Acquisition of scale insects thus seems to be an important step in the successful establishment of a new colony on a host plant. Coccoids may either be transported by a foundress ant on her nuptial flight (vertical transmission via co-dispersal) or ant and coccoid disperse on their own and associate anew during colony initiation (horizontal transmission). Here we test the assumption that founding gynes of Cladomyrma do not transport scale insects during their dispersal flight, and we determine when and how trophobionts are acquired. The results obtained in this study show that although coccoids are not carried by foundresses, their numbers within founding chambers of Cladomyrma increased with the founding stage. In all Cladomyrma species, colony-founding is claustral and the entrance hole into the nest chamber is first plugged with pith debris and later grows over by wound callus. However, access of trophobionts into hollow twigs is facilitated either by additional small openings (secondary slits) produced by the foundress ant after hollowing out a nest chamber or by the maintenance of an orifice at the entrance hole during the founding period. Immature pseudococcids experimentally placed onto twigs close to a Cladomyrma foundation readily entered these slits. Exclusion experiments suggest that foundresses of C. petalae are less successful in rearing their first offspring if entry of coccoids into founding chambers is prevented.Received 28 September 2003; revised 9 May and 11 October 2004; accepted 9 November 2004.     

Cheating on a mutualism: indirect benefits of ant attendance to a coccidophagous coccinellid

Coccinellids (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) are generally unable to prey on ant-tended prey. However, particular coccinellid species have morphological, behavioral, or chemical characteristics that render them immune to ant attacks, and some species are even restricted to ant-tending areas. The benefit gained from living in close association with ants can be twofold: (1) gaining access to high-density prey areas and (2) gaining enemy-free space. Here, the myrmecophily of Azya orbigera Mulsant (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), an important predator of the green coffee scale, Coccus viridis (Green) (Hemiptera: Coccidae), is reported. In this paper, three main questions were studied. (1) Are the waxy filaments of A. orbigera larvae effective as defense against attacks of the mutualistic ant partner of C. viridis, Azteca instabilis F. Smith (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)? (2) Does A. instabilis reduce the rate at which A. orbigera larvae prey on scales? (3) Do A. orbigera larvae gain enemy-free space by living in close association with A. instabilis? Laboratory and field experiments were conducted to answer these questions. We found that, because of the sticky waxy filaments of A. orbigera larvae, A. instabilis is incapable of effectively attacking them and, therefore, the predation rate of A. orbigera on C. viridis does not decrease in the presence of ants. Furthermore, A. instabilis showed aggressive behavior toward A. orbigera's parasitoids, and the presence of ants reduced the parasitism suffered by A. orbigera. This is the first time that this kind of indirect positive effect is reported for an ant and a coccidophagous coccinellid. Furthermore, this indirect positive effect may be key to the persistence of A. orbigera's populations.     

大气CO_2浓度升高对植物-植食性昆虫的作用机制

大气二氧化碳浓度升高及其伴随的全球变暖引起国内外科学家的极大关注。CO2浓度升高主要通过改变植物的初级和次级代谢产物,影响以之为食的昆虫。本文结合作者近年来的研究成果,着重于以CO2浓度升高为作用因子,以植物和植食性昆虫的相互关系为对象,比较了咀嚼式口器昆虫与刺吸式口器昆虫对大气CO2浓度升高的响应特征,分析了不同取食类型昆虫-植物对大气CO2浓度升高的响应机制。     

The phylogeny of a mutualism: evolution and coadaptation between Trollius and its seed-parasitic pollinators

Interactions between seed-parasitic pollinators and their hosts provide useful model systems for the analysis of evolution of mutualism and potential coevolution between plants and insects. Here I present the systematics, pollination ecology and evolution of one of these interactions. I have documented and analysed the phylogenetic and geographic associations between Trollius (Ranunculaceae: 18 spp.) and Chiastocheta (Diptera: Anthomyiidae; 17 spp.), a host-specific genus of seed-parasitic flies that pollinate their host plants to varying extent. Their interactions are usually facultative mutualisms, but in the specialized T. europaeus three fly species are obligate mutualists and a fourth species is an antagonist. The distribution patterns of fly species among Trollius species suggest that the flies evolved in associations with five highly derived Trollius species, and secondarily colonized four more primitive taxa in the parts of their ranges that overlapped with primary hosts. In general, host specificity is maintained primarily through allopatry, with colonization occurring in regions of overlap between parapatric taxa. Fly speciation has occurred in allopatry, both within and among host taxa. Cospeciation is not evident, but convergent evolution in Trollius flowers of several traits, viz. orange sepals, elongated staminodia and increased carpel number per flower, may be the result of mutualism with Chiastocheta.     

Molecular call-and-response: how Salmonella learns the gospel from its host

Host-microbe interactions are often portrayed as a game of molecular hide-and-seek or tug-of-war where one partner seeks to establish an upper-hand over the other. Perhaps a more useful analogy is the traditional call-and-response preaching method used so effectively in churches of the southern USA to encourage participation by the assembled parishioners. The preacher calls out a line of a gospel or hymn and the congregation responds as one to the cue. A recent paper identifies Nramp as a potential molecular preacher, and Salmonella, and probably other pathogenic bacteria, are singing back full-throated.     

Impact of a mutualism between an invasive ant and honeydew-producing insects on a functionally important tree on a tropical island

Mutualisms between invasive ants and honeydew-producing Hemiptera have the potential to result in unusually high population levels of both partners, with subsequent major changes to ecosystem composition and dynamics. We assessed the relationship between the invasive ant, Pheidole megacephala, and its hemipteran mutualists, Dysmicoccus sp. and Pulvinaria urbicola, on Cousine Island, Seychelles. We also assessed the impacts of the mutualism on the condition of the hemipteran host plant, Pisonia grandis, a native and functionally important tree species. There was a strong positive relationship between Ph. megacephala activity and hemipteran abundance, and the exclusion of ants from Pi. grandis resulted in a significant decline in Pu. urbicola abundance. High abundance of the mutualists was strongly associated with damage to the Pi. grandis forest. This indicates that the mutualism is contributing to the massive increase in the population levels of the mutualist species, and is intensifying their impacts on the island. The widespread trophobiosis and its associated high densities of mutualists pose serious threats to the ecosystem, highlighting the need to control the ant and associated hemipteran populations.     

Adrenomedullin and mucosal defence: interaction between host and microorganism

Many surface epithelial cells express adrenomedullin (AM) and it is postulated that it may have an important protective role. This peptide has many properties in common with other cationic antimicrobial peptides including the human beta-defensins. Antimicrobial activity against members of the human skin, oral, respiratory tract and gastric microflora has been demonstrated. Both pathogenic and commensal strains of bacteria are sensitive; Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria being equally susceptible. No activity against the yeast Candida albicans was observed. Minimum inhibitory and minimum bacteriocidal concentrations range from 7.75 x 10(-4) to 12.5 and 0.003 to >25.0 microg ml(-1), respectively. On exposure of oral, skin and gastric epithelial cells to whole cells and culture supernatants from bacteria isolated from these sites an increase in AM peptide and gene expression has been observed. No upregulation was detected with C. albicans. In cultured cells and an animal infection model increased AM peptide and gene expression has been demonstrated using immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization techniques. These collective findings suggest that AM represents a new category of antimicrobial peptide, which contributes to the mucosal host defence system.