Differential sensitivity of osteoclasts and osteoblasts suggests that prostaglandin E1 effects on bone may be mediated primarily through the osteoclasts

Prostaglandin E (PGE) stimulates resorption in bone. Since osteoblast-like osteosarcoma cells secrete PGE2, the possibility that osteoclasts were the major target for PGE was considered. To study this question, it was first established that in isolated bone cells enriched for either osteoclastic (OC) or osteoblastic (OB) characteristics, PGE1 can induce biochemical effects similar to those seen with bovine parathyroid hormone 1-84 (PTH), another potent stimulator of bone resorption. These changes include increased cAMP and hyaluronate synthesis in OC cells, and increased cAMP but decreased citrate decarboxylation in OB cells. By following these markers, it is demonstrated that PGE1 can activate OC cells at doses as low as 1 nM, whereas OB cells require 250 nM. Bone cell responses to various doses of PTH and PGE1 were also compared. In OC cells the lowest effective dose of PGE1 and PTH was similar (1 nM), but increasing response to PGE1 was seen up to 1000 nM in contrast to PTH response which peaked at 20 nM. In addition, the magnitude of PGE1-induced OC cell hyaluronate was two to four times greater than that of PTH at all doses tested. In OB cells, PTH induced significant decreases in citrate decarboxylation at 0.1 nM, compared to 250 nM for PGE1. Half-maximal inhibition of citrate decarboxylation (19% of control) by PTH occurred at 0.5 nM, whereas 500 nM of PGE1 was required for an equivalent effect. Thus, (i) OC cells responded to PGE1 doses that were approximately 200 times lower than the minimum required by OB cells, and (ii) OB cells responded to 100 times lower doses of PTH than PGE1.     

Paracrine interactions in bone-secreted products of osteoblasts permit osteoclasts to respond to parathyroid hormone

During bone remodeling, activation of resorption is followed by a cycle of formation and this ordered sequence of events has long suggested that local interactions between osteoclasts and osteoblasts are an important regulatory mechanism in bone metabolism. To study this phenomenon, we have prepared bone cells containing primarily osteoclasts by brief digestion of mice calvariae in collagenase, overnight attachment to polystyrene tissue culture flasks in serumless medium supplemented with OB (osteoblast) cell conditioned medium and subsequent growth in low serum. These OC (osteoclast) cells were found to be highly enriched in acid phosphatase activity and expressed cAMP responses to PTH (parathyroid hormone) and prostaglandin E2 but exhibited no PTH-stimulated hyaluronate synthesis in contrast to prostaglandin E2. PTH effects on hyaluronate, however, could be restored upon coculture of OC cells with OB cells (noncontact) or with OB cell conditioned medium, thereby suggesting that OB cells regulate OC cell PTH responsiveness and/or differentiation by soluble cell products secreted into the medium.     

In vivo administration of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 suppresses the expression of RANKL mRNA in bone of thyroparathyroidectomized rats constantly infused with PTH

It is known that pharmacological or toxic doses of vitamin D induce bone resorption both in vivo and in vitro, whereas physiological doses of the vitamin have a protective effect on bone in vivo. To investigate the discrepancies of the dose-dependent effect of vitamin D on bone resorption, we examined the in vivo effect of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) [1,25(OH)(2)D(3)] on the expression of the receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) ligand (RANKL) and osteoprotegerin (OPG) mRNAs in bone of thyroparathyroidectomized (TPTX) rats infused with or without parathyroid hormone (PTH). Continuous infusion of 50 ng/h of PTH greatly increased the expression of RANKL mRNA in bone of TPTX rats. Expression of OPG mRNA was not altered by PTH infusion. When graded doses of 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) was daily administered orally for 14 days to normocalcemic TPTX rats constantly infused with PTH, 0.01 and 0.1 microg/kg of 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) inhibited the PTH-induced RANKL mRNA expression, but 0.5 microg/kg of the vitamin did not inhibit it. Regulator of G protein signaling-2 (RGS-2) gene expression was suppressed by 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) dose-dependently, but PTH/PTHrP receptor mRNA expression was not altered. Bone morphometric analyses revealed that 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) suppressed PTH-induced osteoclast number in vivo. These results suggest that pharmacological or toxic doses of 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) stimulate bone resorption by inducing RANKL, but a certain range of physiological doses of the vitamin inhibit PTH-induced bone resorption, the latter mechanism appeared to be mediated, at least in part, by the suppression of the PTH/PTHrP receptor-mediated signaling.     

Glucocorticoid effect on arachidonic acid metabolism in vivo

Glucocorticoids have been shown in in vitro systems to inhibit the release of arachidonic acid metabolites, namely prostaglandins (PGs) and leukotrienes, apparently, via the induction of a phospholipase A2 inhibitory protein, called lipocortin. On the basis of these in vitro results, it has been suggested that inhibition of eicosanoid production is, at least partially, responsible for the well-known anti-inflammatory effect of glucocorticoids. There is, however, no firm evidence proving that glucocorticoids also inhibit prostaglandin or leukotriene synthesis in vivo. In a series of studies, we have investigated the effects of anti-inflammatory steroids on the production of six different cyclo-oxygenase products in vivo. Urinary prostaglandin (PG) E2(1), PGF2 alpha, thromboxane B2 (TxB2), 6-keto-PGF1 alpha, and the major urinary metabolites of the E and F PGs, PGE-M and PGF-M, respectively, were determined by radioimmunoassay and by GC-MS. Administration of pharmacological doses of dexamethasone to rabbits failed to inhibit urinary excretion rates of PGE2, TxB2, 6-keto-PGF1 alpha and that of PGE-M and PGF-M. In contrast, urinary PGF2 alpha was slightly reduced by dexamethasone. In further experiments the effect of dexamethasone was studied in humans. Urinary excretion rates of PGE2, PGE-M, PGF-M, 2,3-dinor TxB2 and 2,3-dinor 6-keto-PGF1 alpha were not suppressed by dexamethasone. Collagen-induced platelet TxB2 formation and platelet aggregation was also unaltered. To test one possible explanation for the apparent discrepancy between in vitro and in vivo effects of glucocorticoids on arachidonic acid metabolites we investigated the effects of dexamethasone in vivo on basal and on antidiuretic hormone-stimulated renal PG synthesis. Dexamethasone treatment failed to inhibit both basal and antidiuretic hormone-stimulated PGE2 and PGF2 alpha production. We conclude that glucocorticoids in vivo do not decrease the basal rate of total body, kidney and platelet prostanoid synthesis, and that dexamethasone does not inhibit renal PG production when it is elevated by antidiuretic hormone, a physiological stimulus. Thus, a differential effect of glucocorticoids on basal vs stimulated PG synthesis cannot account for the discrepancy between in vivo and in vitro effects.     

Direct effect of parathyroid hormone on the proliferation of osteoblast-like cells; a possible involvement of cyclic AMP

Serum-starved chick osteoblast-like cells (OB cells) and periosteal fibroblasts (PF cells) were used to study the proliferative effects of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Both PTH (10(-11) to 10(-8) M) and PGE2 (10(-9) to 10(-5) M) had a direct, dose-related effect on the de novo synthesis of DNA in OB cells. The PF cells only showed a dose-dependent effect in the presence of PGE2 (10(-9) to 10(-5) M). The hormonally induced proliferation of these cells was shown to be dependent on cell density and stimulation time. An optimal response for both cell types was observed in the cell density range 1.5 to 3.5 micrograms DNA/2 cm2, when stimulated for 18 hours. As cAMP-enhancing substances (N6-dBcAMP, forskolin and IBMX) could mimic the PTH- and PGE2-induced proliferation in OB cells, the increased DNA synthesis was concluded to be mainly caused by enhanced cAMP concentrations.     

Stimulation of glucose transport in osteoblastic cells by parathyroid hormone and insulin-like growth factor I

Insulin and parathyroid hormone (PTH) regulate glucose metabolism in bone cells. In order to differentiate between the effects of these hormones and to compare the potency of insulin with that of insulin-like growth factor (IGF) I, we treated rat bone-derived osteoblastic (PyMS) cells for different time periods and at different concentrations with insulin, IGF I, or PTH, and measured [1-(14)C]-2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG) uptake and incorporation of D-[U-(14)C] glucose into glycogen. 2DG uptake was Na-independent with an apparent affinity constant (K (M)) of ~2 mmol/l. Expression of the high affinity glucose transporters (GLUT), GLUT1 and GLUT3 but not of GLUT4, was found by Northern and Western analysis. Similar to the findings with primary rat osteoblasts, but distinct from those in rat fibroblasts, 2DG uptake and glycogen synthesis were increased in this cell line after exposure to low concentrations (0.1 nmol/l and above) of PTH. IGF I at low doses (0.3 nmol/l and above) or insulin at higher doses (1 nmol/l and above) stimulated 2DG uptake and [(3)H] thymidine incorporation into DNA. 2DG transport was enhanced already after 30 min of IGF I treatment whereas the effect of PTH became significant after 6 h. It is concluded that IGF I rather than insulin may be a physiological regulator of 2DG transport and glycogen synthesis in osteoblasts.     

PTH receptors and apoptosis in osteocytes

Osteocytes comprise a heterogenous population of terminally differentiated osteoblasts that direct bone remodeling in response to applied mechanical loading of bone. Increased osteocyte density accompanies the anabolic effect of PTH in vivo, whereas accelerated osteocyte death may be precipitated by estrogen deficiency or excess glucocorticoid exposure (conditions benefitted by intermittent PTH therapy) and by renal failure (where circulating intact PTH and, especially, PTH carboxylfragments are elevated). Osteocytes express type-1 PTH/ PTHrP receptors (PTH1Rs), which are fully activated by aminoterminal PTH fragments and couple to multiple signal transducers, including adenylyl cyclase and phospholipase C. Activation of PTH1Rs in osteocytes promotes gap junction-mediated intercellular coupling, increases expression of MMP-9, potentiates calcium influx via stretch-activated cation channels, amplifies the osteogenic response to mechanical loading in vivo, and regulates apoptosis. Control of osteocyte apoptosis by PTH1Rs is complex, in that intermittent PTH(1-34) administration reduces the fraction of vertebral apoptotic osteocytes at 1 month in adult mice but increases femoral metaphyseal osteocyte apoptosis at 1-2 weeks in young rats. In MLO-Y4 cells, PTH(1-34) prevents apoptosis otherwise induced within 6 hr by dexamethasone. In older studies, large doses of intact PTH(1-84) caused rapid "degenerative" morphologic changes in osteocytes, similar to those described in renal osteodystrophy. We isolated clonal conditionally immortalized osteocytic (OC) cell lines from mice homozygous for targeted ablation of the PTH1R gene. OC cells express abundant (2-3 x 10(6) per cell) receptors specific for the carboxyl(C)-terminus of intact PTH(1-84) ("CPTHRs") but, as expected, do not express PTH1Rs or respond to PTH(1-34). CPTHRs are expressed at much lower levels by other skeletally-derived cell lines. Several highly conserved ligand determinants of CPTHR binding have been identified, including PTH(24-27), PTH(53-54) and the sequence PTH(55-84), loss of which reduces binding affinity by over 100-fold. Human PTH(53-84), like PTH(1-84), PTH(24-84), and PTH(39-84), increases OC cell apoptosis. Ala-scanning mutagenesis to define sequences within PTH(55-84) important for binding and bioactivity is underway. We conclude that osteocytes may be important targets for CPTH fragments that are secreted by the parathyroid glands or generated by peripheral metabolism of intact PTH and that accumulate in blood, especially in renal failure. Studies of functional interplay between responses to CPTHRs and (transfected) PTH1Rs, using receptor-specific ligands in OC cells, should provide new insight into PTH regulation of osteocyte function and survival.     

Adrenalectomy-Induced Increase of Brain Protein Synthesis Is Antagonized by Corticosterone Replacements in Free-Moving Rats

Abstract: The autoradiographic method with l [³⁵S]-methionine was used to determine whether changes in glucocorticoid circulating levels were associated with changes in local rates of protein synthesis in rat brain. Chronic bilateral adrenalectomy induced an increase of me-thionine incorporation rates into proteins in 60 of the 62 brain regions examined (mean effect, +50%). This effect was confirmed biochemically and quantified by correcting for the relative contribution of methionine derived from protein degradation to the precursor pool for protein synthesis in the whole brain. Acute or chronic administration of corticosterone, at doses that normalize basal levels of adrenocorticotrophic hormone, reversed or prevented the adrenalectomy-induced increase of protein synthesis in most regions. However, in nearly all the regions studied (59 of 62), acute corticosterone administration to sham-operated rats did not change the apparent rate of protein synthesis. These results demonstrate that glucocorticoids exert a generalized inhibitory action on brain protein synthesis, because the stimulatory and persistent effect of adrenalectomy on protein synthesis was antagonized by corticosterone replacements at physiological doses. Thus, the regulation of overall brain protein synthesis by glucocorticoids emphasizes the role of neuroendocrine events on long-term neurochemical processes.     

1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 and 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 affect parathormone (PTH) -sensitive adenylate cyclase activity and alkaline phosphatase secretion of osteoblastic cells through different mechanisms of action

In UMR 106 rat osteosarcoma cells, parathormone (1-34hPTH) and calcitonin (sCT) stimulated adenylate cyclase (AC) activity 5.5-and 2.8-fold, respectively. AC in osteoblasts (OB) from collagenase-treated calvaria of 3-day-old rats responded similarly to 1-34hPTH. In contrast, fibroblasts (mouse fibroblastomas) displayed a marginal 1-34hPTH sensitive AC. Osteoclasts (OC) of collagenase-treated rat calvariae, rat monocytes and mouse macrophages did not demonstrate 1-34hPTH inducable AC activity. Physiological concentrations of 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 attenuated PTH-sensitive AC in OB and UMR 106 cells within 20 min, while 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 showed no such immediate effect. In contrast, the AC response to Gpp(NH)p was unaffected by 24,25-(OH)2D3, indicating that 24,25-(OH)2D3 interrupts the coupling of the PTH receptor to the GTP binding protein Gs. OB and UMR 106 cells were also subjected to long-term (48 h) incubation with vitamin D-3 metabolites, 1-34hPTH or 20% serum from patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism (sHBT-serum), respectively. PTH-sensitive AC was markedly attenuated by pre-exposure to both 1-34hPTH and 1,25-(OH)2D3, while minimally affected by corresponding 24,25-(OH)2D3 and 20% sHPT-serum treatment. The secretion of alkaline phosphatase (Alphos) from the two cell types was strongly increased by 1-34hPTH, the effect being abolished by the presence of 24,25-(OH)2D3. Iliac crest biopsies of normal individuals exhibited a clear negative correlation between PTH-sensitive AC and corresponding serum 24,25-(OH)2D3 levels. Basal AC activity was, however, negatively correlated to serum 1,25-(OH)2D3 concentrations. In summary, the results show that 24,25-(OH)2D3 reduces PTH-stimulated AC activity in and Alphos secretion from osteoblastic bone cells by rapidly and directly interfering with the plasma membrane. These data reinforce the probable in vivo significance of 24,25-(OH)2D3. Moreover, the negative correlation between basal AC activity and serum 1,25-(OH)2D3 levels indicates a possible role for 1,25-(OH)2D3 in regulating bone cell synthesis of AC components in vivo.     

Multiple myeloma mesenchymal stromal cells: Contribution to myeloma bone disease and therapeutics

Multiple myeloma is a hematological malignancy inwhich clonal plasma cells proliferate and accumulate within the bone marrow. The presence of osteolytic le-sions due to increased osteoclast(OC) activity and sup-pressed osteoblast(OB) function is characteristic of the disease. The bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells(MSCs) play a critical role in multiple myeloma patho-physiology, greatly promoting the growth, survival, drug resistance and migration of myeloma cells. Here, we specifically discuss on the relative contribution of MSCs to the pathophysiology of osteolytic lesions in light of the current knowledge of the biology of my-eloma bone disease(MBD), together with the reported genomic, functional and gene expression differences between MSCs derived from myeloma patients(pMSCs) and their healthy counterparts(dMSCs). Being MSCs the progenitors of OBs, pMSCs primarily contribute to the pathogenesis of MBD because of their reduced osteogenic potential consequence of multiple OB inhibi-tory factors and direct interactions with myeloma cells in the bone marrow. Importantly, pMSCs also readily contribute to MBD by promoting OC formation and ac-tivity at various levels(i.e., increasing RANKL to OPG expression, augmenting secretion of activin A, uncou-pling ephrinB2-EphB4 signaling, and through augment-ed production of Wnt5a), thus further contributing to OB/OC uncoupling in osteolytic lesions. In this review, we also look over main signaling pathways involved in the osteogenic differentiation of MSCs and/or OB activity, highlighting amenable therapeutic targets; in parallel, the reported activity of bone-anabolic agents(at preclinical or clinical stage) targeting those signaling pathways is commented.     

Bone formation and calcification by isolated osteoblastlike cells

Two cell populations were isolated from calvaria of chick embryos: PF cells were liberated by collagenase treatment from the periosteum, OB cells from the periosteum-free calvarium. Both populations were cultured in plastic culture dishes. After 6 d of culture, monolayers of each cell type either were scraped off the culture dishes, transplanted on the chorio-allantoic membrane of 7-d-old quail eggs, and cultured there for 6 d, or were used for biochemical experiments. OB transplants proved capable of producing calcified bone matrix, whereas PF transplants formed only fibrous tissue. Biochemically, OB cells showed high cAMP production in the presence of parathyroid hormone (PTH), whereas cAMP production was not stimulated in PF cultures. Lactate production was stimulated by PTH in both populations although somewhat differently. Citrate decarboxylation was high in OB cells and was inhibited by PTH but was low in PF cells, where it was stimulated by the same hormone. The differences in hormonal response between the two cell types made it possible to conclude that PF cultures are relatively free of OB cells. The PF contamination in OB cultures was more difficult to assess. The experiments described in this report show that the OB population contains osteoblasts or osteoblastlike cells which are, under favorable circumstances, capable of bone formation.     

Second messenger signaling in the regulation of cytosolic pH and DNA synthesis by parathyroid hormone (PTH) and PTH-related peptide in osteoblastic osteosarcoma cells: role of Na+/H+ exchange.

The present study was performed to investigate the regulation of cytosolic pH (pHi) and DNA synthesis by parathyroid hormone(PTH) and PTH-related peptide (PTHrP) in osteoblasts, using osteoblastic osteosarcoma cells, UMR-106 which possessed PTH-responsive dual signal transduction systems (cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) and calcium/protein kinase C [Ca/PKC]) and amiloride-inhibitable Na+/H+ exchange system. Both human (h)PTH-(1-34) and hPTHrP-(1-34) caused a progressive decrease in pHi and the inhibition of [3H]thymidine incorporation (TdR) to the same degree in a dose-dependent manner with a minimal effective dose of 10(-10) M. Dibutyryl cAMP (10(-4) M and Sp-cAMPS (10(-4) M), a direct stimulator of PKA also caused a progressive decrease in pHi, and calcium ionophores (A23187 and ionomycin, 10(-6) M) caused a transient decrease in pHi. Pretreatment with amiloride (0.3 mM) mostly blocked dbcAMP- and Sp-cAMPS-induced decrease in pHi but did not affect calcium ionophore-induced decrease in pHi. In the presence of amiloride, PTH and PTHrP caused a transient decrease in pHi, which was similar to the pattern of calcium ionophore-induced change in pHi. Amiloride did not affect the inhibition of TdR by PTH or PTHrP as well as that by cAMP analogues or calcium ionophores. The present study indicated that PTH and PTHrP caused cytosolic acidification through PKA-inhibited Na+/H+ exchange and increased cytosolic calcium-induced pathway and that the regulation of DNA synthesis by PTH and PTHrP was not via Na+/H+ exchange system.     

Effect of dexamethasone on proliferating osteoblasts: inhibition of prostaglandin E2 synthesis, DNA synthesis, and alterations in actin cytoskeleton.

Elevated levels of glucocorticoids caused by disease (Cushing's syndrome) or therapeutic treatment of asthma are known to cause osteoporosis. Space flight, an environmental condition, is known to cause a rise in endogenous cortisols accompanied by a significant loss of bone and calcium. Long-term space inhabitants have lost up to 18% of weight bearing bone during long-term flight. This study demonstrates that elevated concentrations of glucocorticoids lower the endogenous production of PGE2 and interfere with osteoblast proliferation. Osteoblasts grown with dexamethasone had significantly lower DNA synthesis and endogenous synthesis of PGE2. Addition of exogenous dmPGE2 to the dexamethasone growth-inhibited cells stimulated DNA synthesis over twofold. In synchronous control cultures, we found that endogenous prostaglandin synthesis increased in late G1, preceding S-phase DNA synthesis by several hours. The addition of exogenous dexamethasone to synchronous cultures resulted in a significant decrease in the prostaglandin synthesis followed by a significant decrease in DNA synthesis in parallel cultures. Further, dexamethasone caused the actin cytoskeleton to collapse and the cell morphology to become rounded and spindle shaped. Addition of exogenous PGE2 to the dexamethasone-treated osteoblasts caused recovery of the actin architecture and phenotype. These data support the hypothesis that the glucocorticoid-mediated decrease in prostaglandin synthesis may be a contributing factor in the reduced bone quality and trabecular bone formation seen in glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis.     

Autophagy in osteoblasts is involved in mineralization and bone homeostasis

Bone remodeling is a tightly controlled mechanism in which osteoblasts (OB), the cells responsible for bone formation, osteoclasts (OC), the cells specialized for bone resorption, and osteocytes, the multifunctional mechanosensing cells embedded in the bone matrix, are the main actors. Increased oxidative stress in OB, the cells producing and mineralizing bone matrix, has been associated with osteoporosis development but the role of autophagy in OB has not yet been addressed. This is the goal of the present study. We first show that the autophagic process is induced in OB during mineralization. Then, using knockdown of autophagy-essential genes and OB-specific autophagy-deficient mice, we demonstrate that autophagy deficiency reduces mineralization capacity. Moreover, our data suggest that autophagic vacuoles could be used as vehicles in OB to secrete apatite crystals. In addition, autophagy-deficient OB exhibit increased oxidative stress and secretion of the receptor activator of NFKB1 (TNFSF11/RANKL), favoring generation of OC, the cells specialized in bone resorption. In vivo, we observed a 50% reduction in trabecular bone mass in OB-specific autophagy-deficient mice. Taken together, our results show for the first time that autophagy in OB is involved both in the mineralization process and in bone homeostasis. These findings are of importance for mineralized tissues which extend from corals to vertebrates and uncover new therapeutic targets for calcified tissue-related metabolic pathologies.     

Autophagy in osteoblasts is involved in mineralization and bone homeostasis

Bone remodeling is a tightly controlled mechanism in which osteoblasts (OB), the cells responsible for bone formation, osteoclasts (OC), the cells specialized for bone resorption, and osteocytes, the multifunctional mechanosensing cells embedded in the bone matrix, are the main actors. Increased oxidative stress in OB, the cells producing and mineralizing bone matrix, has been associated with osteoporosis development but the role of autophagy in OB has not yet been addressed. This is the goal of the present study. We first show that the autophagic process is induced in OB during mineralization. Then, using knockdown of autophagy-essential genes and OB-specific autophagy-deficient mice, we demonstrate that autophagy deficiency reduces mineralization capacity. Moreover, our data suggest that autophagic vacuoles could be used as vehicles in OB to secrete apatite crystals. In addition, autophagy-deficient OB exhibit increased oxidative stress and secretion of the receptor activator of NFKB1 (TNFSF11/RANKL), favoring generation of OC, the cells specialized in bone resorption. In vivo, we observed a 50% reduction in trabecular bone mass in OB-specific autophagy-deficient mice. Taken together, our results show for the first time that autophagy in OB is involved both in the mineralization process and in bone homeostasis. These findings are of importance for mineralized tissues which extend from corals to vertebrates and uncover new therapeutic targets for calcified tissue-related metabolic pathologies.