Synthesis and hormonal activity of [Tyr22] glucagon and [desHis1, Tyr22] glucagon

[Tyr22] glucagon and [desHis1, Tyr22] glucagon were synthesized by an improved solid phase procedure on a Pam-resin. The course of the synthesis was monitored by quantitative ninhydrin analysis and preview sequencing. Following cleavage by the low/high HF method the peptides were purified by ion exchange chromatography and reverse phase HPLC. The overall yield of homogeneous isolated peptide from the first amino acid was 41%. Circular dichroism measurements on dilute solutions in mixed aqueous organic solvents at pH 2, 6.9 and 9.2 showed increased beta-sheet structure relative to glucagon. [Tyr22] glucagon was a full agonist with 20-30% activity in the rabbit blood glucose assay and 10% activity in the rat liver membrane adenyl cyclase assay. [desHis1, Tyr22] glucagon had only a trace of activity in the adenyl cyclase assay (less than 0.002%) but bound to membranes in a competitive [125I] glucagon assay 1.0% as well as glucagon. The analog completely inhibited formation of cAMP by natural glucagon, with 50% inhibition at a ratio of 83:1 and pA2 = 6.7. The data are discussed in terms of models of glucagon structure in dilute solution.     

The conformation of glucagon: predictions and consequences.

It is proposed that glucagon, a polypeptide hormone, is delicately balanced between two major conformational states. Utilizing a new predictive model [Chou, P.Y., and Fasman, G.D. (1974), Biochemistry 13, 222] which considers all the conformational states in proteins (helix, beta sheet, random coil, and beta turns), the secondary structural regions of glucagon are computed herein. The conformational sensitivity of glucagon may be due to residues 19-27 which have both alpha-helical potential (mean value of Palpha = 1.19) as well as beta-sheet potential (mean value of Pbeta = 1.25). Two conformational states are predicted for glucagon. In predicted form (a), residues 5-10 form a beta-sheet region while residues 19-27 form an alpha-helical region (31% alpha, 21% beta) agreeing well with the circular dichroism (CD) spectra of glucagon. The similarity in the CD spectra of glucagon and insulin further suggests the presence of beta structure in glucagon, since X-ray analysis of insulin showed 24% beta sheet. In predicted form (b), both regions, residues 5-10 and residues 19-27, are beta sheets sheets (0% alpha, 52% beta) in agreement with the infrared spectral evidence that glucagon gels and fibrils have a predominant beta-sheet conformation. Since three reverse beta turns are predicted at residues 2-5, 10-13, and 15-18, glucagon may possess tertiary structure in agreement with viscosity and tritium-hydrogen exchange experiments. A proposal is offered concerning an induced alpha yields beta transition at residues 22-27 in glucagon during receptor site binding. Amino acid substitutions are proposed which should disrupt the beta sheets of glucagon with concomitant loss of biological activity. The experimental findings that glucagon aggregates to form dimers, trimers, and hexamers can be explained in terms of beta-sheet interactions as outlined in the present predictive model. Thus the conflicting conclusions of previous workers, concerning the conformation of glucagon in different environments, can be rationalized by the suggested conformational transition occurring within the molecule.     

Analog modeling of glucagon-induced autophagy in rat liver. II. Evaluation of iron labeling as a means for identifying telolysosome, autophagosome and autolysosome populations.

To evaluate the potential usefulness of iron labeling as a means for identifying the telolysome, autophagosome and autolysosome populations of rat liver, animals treated with Jectofer (iron-citric acid-sorbitol complex), or with Jectofer followed by glucagon, have been studied with a variety of biochemical and morphological methods. Differential centrifugation studies of liver homogenates revealed that the sedimentation velocity and mechanical fragility of acid phosphatase bearing particles increase with the duration of Jectofer treatment and that iron accumulates in the mitochondrial and nuclear fractions. Rate sedimentation studies confirmed the change in sedimentation velocity, which was shown to be due in part to a marked increase in particle density. Quantitative morphological analysis of liver M + L and N + M + L fractions revealed a nearly complete absence of pericanalicular dense bodies after 6–7 days of Jectofer treatment. In these fractions a new type of particle containing fine electron dense granules was seen. The mean volume of these particles was decreased and their number increased when compared to dense bodies but the general morphology and overall size distribution of the two particle classes were similar. In animals given both Jectofer and glucagon, autophagic vacuole formation was similar to that found in animals receiving only glucagon. However, the increase in osmotic fragility of acid phosphatase bearing particles usually seen after glucagon administration occurred at a significantly slower rate. Examination of paniculate fractions revealed the presence of autophagic vacuoles with (autolysosomes) and without (autophagosomes) fine dense granules. The number of autolysosomes and their relative proportion in the autophagic vacuole population were correlated with an increase in the osmotic fragility of the acid phosphatase bearing particles in the same fraction. Organelle degeneration was observed more frequently in autolysosome profiles. These results support the contention that iron labeling can be used to separate the principal particle populations participating in the autophagic response induced by glucagon.     

Effect of dietary carbohydrates on insulin and glucagon receptors in a new model of noninsulin-dependent diabetes-SHR/N-corpulent rat

A new congenic strain of rat, the SHR/N-corpulent, provides a good model for noninsulin-dependent diabetes and was used in the present study. Corpulent rats as compared to their lean littermates are obese, hyperlipidemic, and severely hyperinsulinemic, and show an age-dependent loss of glucose tolerance. Mild fasting hyperglycemia is seen only in corpulent rats fed sucrose. Since dietary sucrose is more lipogenic than starch and since insulin and glucagon are involved in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, we studied the effect of the type of dietary carbohydrate on insulin and glucagon levels and their receptors in lean and corpulent SHR/N rats. A significant phenotypic effect was observed (corpulent greater than lean) on plasma levels of triglyceride, cholesterol, and insulin. Dietary sucrose increased these parameters in corpulent rats but not in lean rats. Insulin and glucagon binding to liver plasma membranes was lower in corpulent rats than in lean; decreases were due to fewer receptors without a significant change in affinity. Thus, in corpulent rats, in addition to hyperinsulinemia, fewer glucagon receptors and their failure to be regulated by plasma glucagon levels appear to contribute to the hyperlipidemia. Furthermore, the hyperglycemia observed in sucrose-fed corpulent rats may be due to extreme resistance to insulin despite lower plasma glucagon and fewer glucagon receptors.     

Effect of specific trinitrophenylation of the lysine epsilon amino group of glucagon on receptor binding and adenylate cyclase activation

The trinitrophenyl group was specifically introduced into the ?-amino group of glucagon by reaction of N^α-citraconyl glucagon with trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid. The N^α-citraconyl blocking group was subsequently removed by acid treatment yielding N^?-trinitrophenyl glucagon which was purified by anion-exchange chromatography. The derivative showed less secondary structure as measured by circular dichroism than the native hormone at pH 8.0 and at pH 2.0 in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate. The analog possessed 4–5% the potency of glucagon in stimulating adenylate cyclase with 90% maximal stimulation and possessed 30% the potency of glucagon in competing for glucagon-specific receptor sites in hepatic plasma membranes. Although the structure of N^?-trinitrophenyl glucagon is very similar to N^?-4-azido-2-nitrophenyl glucagon, the photoaffinity antagonist synthesized by M. D. Bregman and D. Levy [(1977) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 78, 584–590.], the biological activities of the two are different. Possible explanations for these differences are discussed.     

~(21)Ala定点突变胰高血糖素及结构与功能变化

 胰高血糖素是由 2 9个氨基酸组成的多肽激素 ,具有促糖元分解的生理功能 ,其拮抗剂有治疗糖尿病病人的潜在应用价值 .在获得重组胰高血糖素基因工程菌基础上 ,利用定点突变技术改造其第 2 1位氨基酸天冬氨酸为丙氨酸 ,并经DNA测序证明胰高血糖素基因发生了点突变 .用IPTG诱导表达后 ,经亲和层析和反相高效液相层析 ,纯化到突变型重组2 1Ala 胰高血糖素 .质谱测定分子量与理论值相符 .利用园二色谱比较重组胰高血糖素和突变的2 1Ala 胰高血糖素在TFE中的二级结构 ,发现胰高血糖素以α螺旋为主要二级结构 ,2 1Ala 胰高血糖素仍有α螺旋结构特征 ,并且含量有所增大 .利用兔升血糖试验 ,发现2 1Ala 胰高血糖素生物活性比重组胰高血糖素减少 51 % (P <0 .0 1 ) .显示天然胰高血糖素第 2 1位氨基酸天冬氨酸与形成α螺旋结构关系不大 ,但在发挥胰高血糖素的生物功能中有重要作用 ,与其可作为钙离子结合位点 ,参与胰高血糖素和受体结合的潜在功能密切相关 .     

Glucagon amyloid-like fibril morphology is selected via morphology-dependent growth inhibition

The 29-residue peptide hormone glucagon readily fibrillates at low pH, but the structure and morphology of the fibrils are very sensitive to the environmental conditions. Here we have investigated the mechanism behind the differences in morphology observed when glucagon fibrils are formed at different peptide concentrations. Electron microscopy shows that fibrils formed at low glucagon concentration (0.25 mg/mL) are twisted, while fibrils formed at high concentration (8 mg/mL) are straight. Monitoring the fibrillation kinetics at different concentrations, we find that the lag time has an unexpected maximum at a concentration of 1 mg/mL, with faster fibrillation at both lower and higher concentrations. Seeding experiments show that small amounts of straight fibril seeds can accelerate fibril growth at both low and high glucagon concentration, while twisted fibril seeds cannot grow at high concentrations. We conclude that there exists a morphology-dependent mechanism for inhibition of glucagon fibril growth. Light scattering experiments indicate that glucagon is mainly monomeric below 1 mg/mL and increasingly trimeric above this concentration. We propose that the glucagon trimer is able to specifically inhibit growth of the twisted fibril morphology. Such inhibitory binding of molecules in an unproductive conformation could also play a role in the selection of morphologies for other fibril-forming peptides and proteins.     

Glucagon antagonists: contribution to binding and activity of the amino-terminal sequence 1-5, position 12, and the putative alpha-helical segment 19-27

Glucagon binding to and recognition by its cell surface receptor is the necessary first step in the cascade of events leading to the activation of adenylate cyclase by the hormone. It has long been presumed that glucagon adopts an ordered conformation upon binding to its membrane-bound receptor. A recent model of this three-dimensional structure based on biophysical data, predicts beta-turns at positions 2-5, 10-13, and 15-18, and an alpha-helical region between residues 19-27. Our approach in the design of antagonists of glucagon was to elucidate the steric and electronic features that stabilize these secondary structures to obtain analogs that bind with high affinity to the receptor but do not activate adenylate cyclase. Nineteen glucagon analogs incorporating structural changes at the amino-terminal sequence 1-5, at positions 9 and 12, and at the carboxyl-terminal helical region were synthesized. Des-His1-[Glu9]glucagon amide was recently shown to be a competitive inhibitor. Our synthetic studies in combination with this modification have resulted in seven new glucagon antagonists. The implications for the structural and conformational properties required for binding and activity of glucagon and the glucagon peptide family are discussed.     

Self-association of glucagon as measured by the optical properties of rhodamine 6G

The fluorescence of rhodamine 6G is completely quenched in glucagon solutions in 0.6 M K2HOP4 at pH 10.6. The absorption of rhodamine 6G is red-shifted by the same reaction. A single rhodamine 6G molecule appears to be bound to a hydrophobic patch in the center of the trimer of glucagon. Since the glucagon monomer has almost no organized structure this site exists only in the associated trimer form of glucagon. The self-association of glucagon to the trimer has been determined from the variation in rhodamine 6G fluorescence and absorption measured over a 60-fold range of dye concentration. The self-association constant agrees with values determined by other methods in the absence of dye. The binding isotherms of rhodamine 6G to glucagon shift with glucagon concentration and exhibit negative cooperativity.     

Conformational and biological properties of glucagon fragments containing residues 1-17 and 19-29

The 29 amino acid polypeptide hormone glucagon was cleaved into two large fragments by the enzyme clostripain. The conformational properties of these two fragments were monitored by circular dichroism at pH 2 and 12 in both the presence and absence of sodium dodecyl sulfate. Both glucagon (1-17) and glucagon (19-29) have reduced abilities to fold in aqueous solution. However, both fragments can take on structure of higher apparent helical content in acidic solution in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate but only the glucagon (19-29) retains this conformation at high pH. Neither of the two fragments react with dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine as the intact peptide does. Only the carboxyl terminal fragment was capable of reacting with an antibody specific for glucagon. The glucagon (1-17) has markedly reduced affinity for binding to the glucagon receptor as well as markedly reduced ability to stimulate adenylate cyclase activity which is not affected by the presence of glucagon (19-29). It is proposed that the intact sequence provides specific groups required for activity as well as the potential for forming a stable amphipathic helix, both of which are necessary for full biological activity at low peptide concentrations.     

The endocrine cells in the gastroenteropancreatic system of the bowfin, Amia calva L.: an immunohistochemical, ultrastructural, and immunocytochemical analysis.

The gastroenteropancreatic (GEP) endocrine system of bowfin (Amia calva) was described using light and electron microscopy and immunological methods. The islet organ (endocrine pancreas) consists of diffusely scattered, mostly small islets and isolated patches of cells among and within the exocrine acini. The islets are composed of abundant, centrally located B cells immunoreactive to bovine and lamprey insulin antisera and D cells showing a widespread distribution and specificity to somatostatin antibodies. A and F cells are present at the very periphery of the islets and are immunoreactive with antisera against glucagon (and glucagon-like peptide) and several peptides of the pancreatic polypeptide (PP)-family, respectively. The peptides of the two families usually collocates within the same peripheral islet cells and are the most common immunoreactive peptides present in the extra-islet tissue. Immunocytochemistry and fine structural observations characterised the granule morphology for B and D cells and identified two cell types with granules immunoreactive to glucagon antisera. These two putative A cells had similar granules, which were distinct from either B or D cells, but one of the cells had rod-shaped cytoplasmic inclusions within cisternae of what appeared to be rough endoplasmic reticulum. The inclusions were not immunoreactive to either insulin or glucagon antisera. Only small numbers of cells in the stomach and intestine immunoreacted to antisera against somatostatin, glucagon, and PP-family peptides. The paucity of these cells was reflected in the low concentrations of these peptides in intestinal extracts. The GEP system of bowfin is not unlike that of other actinopterygian fishes, but there are some marked differences that may reflect the antiquity of this system and/or may be a consequence of the ontogeny of this system in this species.     

The relation of predicted structure to observed conformation and activity of glucagon analogs containing replacements at positions 19, 22, and 23

Six new analogs of glucagon have been synthesized containing replacements at positions 19, 22, and 23. They were designed to study the correlation between predicted conformation in the 19-27 segment of the hormone and the conformation calculated from circular dichroism measurements and the observed activation of adenylate cyclase in the liver membrane. The analogs were [Val19]glucagon, [Val22]glucagon, [Glu23]glucagon, [Val19,Glu23]glucagon, [Glu22,Glu23]glucagon, and [Ala22,Ala23]glucagon. The structures predicted for the 19-27 segment ranged from strongly alpha helical to weakly beta sheet. The observed conformations varied as functions of amino acid composition, solvent, concentration, pH, and temperature but did not correlate well with prediction. There was, however, a correlation between predicted structure and activation of adenylate cyclase in rat liver membranes.     

The changing face of glucagon fibrillation: structural polymorphism and conformational imprinting

We have established a time-resolved fluorescence assay to study fibrillation of the 29 residue peptide hormone glucagon under a variety of different conditions in a high-throughput format. Fibrils formed at pH 2.5 differ in fibrillation kinetics, morphology, thioflavin T staining and FTIR/CD spectra depending on salts, glucagon concentration and fibrillation temperature. Apparent fibrillar stability correlates with spectral and kinetic properties; generally, fibrils formed under conditions favourable for rapid fibrillation (ambient temperatures, high glucagon concentration or high salt concentration) appear less thermostable than those formed under more challenging conditions (high temperatures, low glucagon or low salt concentrations). Properties of preformed fibrils used for seeding are inherited in a prion-like manner. Thus, we conclude that the structure of fibrils formed by glucagon is not the result of the global energy minimization, but rather kinetically controlled by solvent conditions and seed-imprinting. Fibrillar polymorphism, which is being reported for an increasing number of proteins, probably reflects that fibrils have not been under evolutionary constraints to retain a single active conformation. Our results highlight the complexity of the fibrillation mechanism of glucagon, since even subtle changes in fibrillation conditions can alter the type of fibrils formed, or result in formation of mixtures of several types of fibrils.     

Evidence that glucagon-mediated inhibition of acetyl-CoA carboxylase in isolated adipocytes involves increased phosphorylation of the enzyme by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase.

The kinetic parameters and phosphorylation state of acetyl-CoA carboxylase were analysed after purification of the enzyme by avidin--Sepharose chromatography from extracts of isolated adipocytes treated with glucagon or adrenaline. The results provide evidence that the mechanism of inhibition of acetyl-CoA carboxylase in adipocytes treated with glucagon [Zammit & Corstorphine (1982) Biochem. J. 208, 783-788] involves increased phosphorylation of the enzyme. Hormone treatment had effects on the kinetic parameters of the enzyme similar to those of phosphorylation of the enzyme in vitro by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase. Glucagon treatment of adipocytes led to increased phosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase in the same chymotryptic peptide as that containing the major site phosphorylated on the enzyme by purified cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase in vitro [Munday & Hardie (1984) Eur. J. Biochem. 141, 617-627]. The dose--response curves for inhibition of enzyme activity and increased phosphorylation of the enzyme were very similar, with half-maximal effects occurring at concentrations of glucagon (0.5-1 nM) which are close to the physiological range. In general, the patterns of increased 32P-labelling of chymotryptic peptides induced by glucagon or adrenaline were similar, although there were quantitative differences between the effects of the two hormones on individual peptides. The results are discussed in terms of the possible roles of cyclic AMP-dependent and -independent protein kinases in the regulation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase activity and of lipogenesis in white adipose tissue.     

Zinc Supplementation Does Not Affect Glucagon Response to Intravenous Glucose and Insulin Infusion in Patients with Well-Controlled Type 2 Diabetes

Glucagon dysregulation is an essential component in the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes. Studies in vitro and in animal models have shown that zinc co-secreted with insulin suppresses glucagon secretion. Zinc supplementation improves blood glucose control in patients with type 2 diabetes, although there is little information about how zinc supplementation may affect glucagon secretion. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of 1-year zinc supplementation on fasting plasma glucagon concentration and in response to intravenous glucose and insulin infusion in patients with type 2 diabetes. A cross-sectional study was performed after 1-year of intervention with 30 mg/day zinc supplementation or a placebo on 28 patients with type 2 diabetes. Demographic, anthropometric, and biochemical parameters were determined. Fasting plasma glucagon and in response to intravenous glucose and insulin infusion were evaluated. Patients of both placebo and supplemented groups presented a well control of diabetes, with mean values of fasting blood glucose and glycated hemoglobin within the therapeutic goals established by ADA. No significant differences were observed in plasma glucagon concentration, glucagon/glucose ratio or glucagon/insulin ratio fasting, after glucose or after insulin infusions between placebo and supplemented groups. No significant effects of glucose or insulin infusions were observed on plasma glucagon concentration. One-year zinc supplementation did not affect fasting plasma glucagon nor response to intravenous glucose or insulin infusion in well-controlled type 2 diabetes patients with an adequate zinc status.     

Applicability of the fluorescence-detected circular dichroism method for the determination of the secondary structure of glucagon and albumin

The fluorescence detected circular dichroism (FDCD) spectra of dansyl-leucine are reported. These spectra were obtained with the use of an unique device. FDCD, circular dichroism (CD) and absorption spectra of dansyl-leucine are combined to calculate CD spectra of the dansyl group in the given environment. A new method for determination of the secondary protein structure from the CD spectra taking into account the contribution of tryptophan residues is proposed. This contribution is defined from FDCD. The secondary structure of glucagon and human serum albumin, all containing a single, fluorescent tryptophan, were analysed. A good correspondence between these results and those reported for glucagon structure were found, while the usual method (without determination on tryptophan contribution) leads to unsatisfactory results.     

Synthesis and properties of a photoaffinity probe for the glucagon receptor in hepatocyte plasma membranes.

The reaction of glucagon with 4-fluoro-3-nitrophenylazide has been shown to afford the photosensitive derivative, Nepsilon-4-azido-2-nitrophenyl-glucagon. The structure and properties of this derivative were established by amino acid analysis, absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy, deamination, Edman degradation and photolysis. This photoaffinity derivative of glucagon has been used to label specifically glucagon binding sites on hepatocyte plasma membranes.     

The effect of oxyntomodulin (Glucagon-37) and glucagon on exocrine pancreatic secretion in the conscious rat

The inhibitory effect of glucagon on exocrine pancreas has been the subject of controversial reports. On the other hand, oxyntomodulin (bioactive enteroglucagon or glucagon-37), a 37 amino acid peptide isolated from porcine lower intestine, has been shown to be 10–20 times more potent than glucagon in inhibiting gastric acid secretion in the rat. In view of this, the effect of glucagon and oxyntomodulin on basal and caerulein-stimulated pancreatic secretion has been studied, during re-introduction of pancreatic juice into duodenum, in the conscious rat provided with pancreatic and duodenal fistulas. A depression of pancreatic function was observed with both peptides on the three parameters studied: (volume of juice secreted, bicarbonate and protein output), either under basal conditions or during stimulation by caerulein. In all the experimental conditions used, oxyntomodulin was ca. ten times more potent than glucagon in its inhibitory effect. The fact that oxyntomodulin, as what is observed in the stomach, is one order of magnitude more potent than glucagon in inhibiting pancreatic secretion suggests that the biological mechanisms by which the peptides of the glucagon-family act on exocrine pancreas are similar, or related to that present at the gastric level.     

Non-equivalence of the carboxyl groups of glucagon in the carbodiimide-promoted reaction with nucleophiles and the role of carboxyl groups in the ability of glucagon to stimulate the adenyl cyclase of rat liver

The polypeptide hormone glucagon can react with the nucleophiles; glycinamide, taurine or ethylenediamine in the presence of 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropylcarbodiimide). The number of carboxyl groups which are modified depend on the concentration of guanidine hydrochloride in the reaction media. These results demonstrate an additional property which glucagon possesses in common with larger globular proteins and suggests that the hormone has a specific, folded structure in dilute aqueous solution. In the absence of guanidine hydrochloride only one taurine residue is incorporated into the terminal carboxyl group of the peptide. In 7 M guanidine hydrochloride all four of the carboxyl groups react with glycinamide or taurine while only two and a half residues of ethylenediamine are incorporated. All of these derivatives and glucagon have identical circular dichroism spectra in dilute aqueous solution. The taurine modified derivative has greatly enhanced solubility compared with glucagon but still associates to structures of higher helical content. Both of the taurine derivatives of glucagon have the ability to stimulate the adenyl cyclase of rat liver membranes but at concentrations several fold higher than is needed for the native hormone. It is suggested that each carboxyl group contributes to the binding of the hormone to the specific membrane receptor sites.