Biochemical and palaeopathological investigations on weaning and infant mortality in the early Middle Ages

Weaning age of the children of the early medieval population at Wenigumstadt (Ldkr. Aschaffenburg, southern Germany, 500-700 AD) was estimated by stable nitrogen isotope analysis of bone collagen. The onset of weaning was by one year of age, when solid vegetal food subsequently replaced breast milk. In total, the change from mother's milk to solid adult food took about three years, the infants being fully weaned at this age. While the growing infant was sufficiently supported in utero and during the first months of life, the weanling's diet was insufficient for further growth and development. Starting with about 18 months of age, more and more symptoms of malnutrition are detectable on the skeletal remains, and the peak of both morbidity and mortality is reached at four years of age. Especially unspecific stress markers like Harris' lines and enamel hypoplasia clearly indicate the infants' risk of falling ill or die between three and four years of age. Malnutrition weakens the immune response, therefore the majority of inflammations detectable on the skeleton are found among the inadequately nourished children. The assumption that weaning is responsible for pathological skeletal lesions and early death in history is thus supported by archaeometry.     

Causes of infant mortality in the Middle Ages revealed by chemical and palaeopathological analyses of skeletal remains

In most prehistoric and historic populations, mortality of small infants is very high. Causes of death are mainly discussed in analogy to the situation in modern preindustrial societies. The children are at high risk to fall ill or even die especially in times of weaning. Trace element analysis of the skeletal remains of small infants excavated in Schleswig (northern Germany, 11th/12th century AD) led to the estimation of weaning age as well as to the reconstruction of a stepwise substitution of mothers' milk by other food items. Subsequent palaeopathological analysis confirmed high mortality in this age-group. Thus, causes of death of small infants in a medieval town can be outlined.     

The Not-so-Dark Ages: ecology for human growth in medieval and early twentieth century Portugal as inferred from skeletal growth profiles

This study attempts to address the issue of relative living standards in Portuguese medieval and early 20th century periods. Since the growth of children provides a good measure of environmental quality for the overall population, the skeletal growth profiles of medieval Leiria and early 20th century Lisbon were compared. Results show that growth in femur length of medieval children did not differ significantly from that of early 20th century children, but after puberty medieval adolescents seem to have recovered, as they have significantly longer femora as adults. This is suggestive of greater potential for catch-up growth in medieval adolescents. We suggest that this results from distinct child labor practices, which impact differentially on the growth of Leiria and Lisbon adolescents. Work for medieval children and adolescents were related to family activities, and care and attention were provided by family members. Conversely, in early 20th century Lisbon children were more often sent to factories at around 12 years of age as an extra source of family income, where they were exploited for their labor. Since medieval and early 20th century children were stunted at an early age, greater potential for catch-up growth in medieval adolescents results from exhausting work being added to modern adolescent's burdens of disease and poor diet, when they entered the labor market. Although early 20th century Lisbon did not differ in overall unfavorable living conditions from medieval Leiria, after puberty different child labor practices may have placed modern adolescents at greater risk of undernutrition and poor growth.     

Spectrum of Asthma in Children—I,Clinical and Physiological Components

A sample of 315 asthmatic children, representative of the whole range of asthma in childhood, and a control group of 82 children were studied clinically and physiologically from 7 to 14 years of age. The asthmatic children were arbitrarily classified into four grades according to the relative frequency and persistence of their asthma to 14 years of age. Each of these grades could be more clearly defined on analysis of other clinical and physiological characteristics.The characteristics of severe persistent asthma were: onset usually in the first three years of life, a high frequency of attacks in the initial year, clinical and physiological evidence of persisting airways obstruction and pulmonary hyperinflation, chest deformity, and impairment of growth. By contrast, mild asthma usually began later in childhood, was episodic, and there was little or no evidence of airways obstruction between attacks. The attacks generally stopped before 10 years of age. In between these two extremes were two intermediate grades.The clinical and physiological characteristics of each grade of asthma at 14 years of age were usually evident by 10 years, and in the most severe grade by 7 years of age. These characteristics provide a sound basis for assessment, management, and prognosis.     

Early Postnatal BMI Adaptation Is Regulated During a Fixed Time Period and Mainly Depends on Maternal BMI

In the present study, we investigated whether there are critical time periods which influence the course of BMI during the first 6 years of life. From 5,433 children who participated in preschool examinations those 212 children were selected who crossed the BMI percentiles as a result of an extreme postnatal BMI rise (from <10th to 90th percentile) or fall (from >90th to <10th percentile) or who have persistently low or high BMI both at birth and at the age of 6 years. Forty children with a BMI close to the 50th percentile both at birth and age 6 years were selected to serve as controls. The courses of weight and height during the first 6 years of age were assessed and BMI was calculated. To identify influences connected with BMI development, we investigated genetic, social, nutritional, and other factors proceeding from the mother during pregnancy. Finally completed data sets of 57 children were available. Our study shows that during two critical time periods a significant move toward low or high BMI takes place among the groups: in early infancy from ～0.5 to 1.5 years and again from 5 to 6 years. At the age of 1.5 years the final state of BMI is already fixed in all study groups. Mothers of overweight 6‐year‐old children are overweight, whereas mothers of underweight 6‐year‐old children have a below‐normal BMI. All other investigated factors only had a minor influence on postnatal BMI development. We conclude that postnatal BMI development follows a fixed genetic program and is mainly programmed by maternal metabolism.     

Factors influencing prereproductive mortality in the isolated and preindustrial western Mediterranean population of La Alpujarra, 1900-1950

We study the effects of several variables on the prereproductive mortality pattern in the isolated and rural population of La Alpujarra, located on the western Mediterranean coast (southeast Spain), in the first half of the 20th century. The study is a retrospective analysis from a total sample of 2,200 deliveries, 2,085 of which were born alive and 171 of which did not survive to the 20th birthday. The potential influences of birthdate of children, twinning, firstborn, parental inbreeding, and sex on Alpujarran mortality were analyzed through logistic regression. Parity, family size, and birth interval effects were estimated through the difference between observed and expected mortality rates. In every case four age groups of mortality were considered because of the large influence of child growth: neonatal (less than 1 month of life), postneonatal infant (between 1 month and 1 year old), childhood (1-5 years old), and youth (5-20 years old). The Alpujarran prereproductive mortality pattern can be summarized as the result of three main risk factors: biodemographic, biomechanical, and social and health determinants. In general, every factor showed a decreased effect as children grew. The most significant determinants were birthdate of children, which is more related to increased mother's awareness of child care than to health improvement, and family size associated with decreasing alimentary resources as the sibling number increased. Male mortality was higher than female mortality in children older than 1 year but not for infant mortality, possibly as a result of a reproductive behavior favorable to males. Although firstborn status and twinning appeared associated with high mortality, maternal age and birth interval were related to low risk, but these influences always ceased after the first month of life. Parental inbreeding did not show any effect on infant, childhood, or youth mortality.     

Early life risk factors for obesity in childhood: cohort study

Objective To identify risk factors in early life (up to 3 years of age) for obesity in children in the United Kingdom.Design Prospective cohort study.Setting Avon longitudinal study of parents and children, United Kingdom.Participants 8234 children in cohort aged 7 years and a subsample of 909 children (children in focus) with data on additional early growth related risk factors for obesity.Main outcome measures Obesity at age 7 years, defined as a body mass index ³ 95th centile relative to reference data for the UK population in 1990.Results Eight of 25 putative risk factors were associated with a risk of obesity in the final models: parental obesity (both parents: adjusted odds ratio, 10.44, 95% confidence interval 5.11 to 21.32), very early (by 43 months) body mass index or adiposity rebound (15.00, 5.32 to 42.30), more than eight hours spent watching television per week at age 3 years (1.55, 1.13 to 2.12), catch-up growth (2.60, 1.09 to 6.16), standard deviation score for weight at age 8 months (3.13, 1.43 to 6.85) and 18 months (2.65, 1.25 to 5.59); weight gain in first year (1.06, 1.02 to 1.10 per 100 g increase); birth weight, per 100 g (1.05, 1.03 to 1.07); and short (< 10.5 hours) sleep duration at age 3 years (1.45, 1.10 to 1.89).Conclusion Eight factors in early life are associated with an increased risk of obesity in childhood.     

白鲟年龄鉴定及其生长的初步研究

以齿骨和胸鳍条为年龄鉴定材料,通过其骨磨片比较研究,结果显示用胸鳍条鉴定白鲟的年龄较为可靠。所收集的６６尾白鲟样品中,根据胸鳍条鉴定年龄,幼鲟８尾,１－３龄。成鱼５８尾中,雄鱼３３尾,最低６龄,最高１１龄,多数个体为８－９龄。雌鱼２５尾,最低７龄,最高１７龄,多数为１０－１２。白鲟生长速度快,特别在第一年其长度生长最为突出。当年１０月份的幼鱼全长达５３－６１ｃｍ,１龄鱼平均全长７５ｃｍ。推算结果表明雌雄鱼在性成熟前生长无明显差异,性成熟后,雌鱼的长度及重量均大于相同年龄雄鱼。采用ＶＢＧＦ描述白鲟全长及体重的增长。     

In memoriam: Maurice A. Bigelow

Abstract

Interracial children of white mothers and black fathers were compared to interracial children of black mothers and white fathers on growth rates during the first year of life. Results indicate that interracial children of white mothers gained less weight between birth and four months of age than did interracial children of black mothers or monoracial black or white children. By one year of age, catch‐up growth appears to have occurred, and there is little evidence for lasting effects of the growth retardation during the first four months of life.     

裕固族4～13岁儿童身高、体重状况调查分析

了解裕固族4～13岁儿童身高、体重发育现状,分析该儿童4～7岁组及7～13岁组生长发育随年龄的变化关系, 为儿童保健工作提供参考依据和合理化建议。采用随机整群抽样的方法抽取484名儿童, 测量身高和体重。以全国身高体重值为参比值, 计算年龄别身高(HAZ)和年龄别体重(WAZ)值评价4～7岁儿童体格生长迟缓和低体重状况; 身体质量指数(BMI)评价7～13岁儿童超重和消瘦情况。结果显示, 调查对象身高均高于对比值, 4～7岁儿童超重检出率为3.45%, 偏瘦检出率2.30%; 7～13岁裕固族儿童营养不良人数占裕固族儿童总人数的36.90%, 严重消瘦的人数占13.10%, 其中女生的消瘦程度较男生差。所以, 儿童身高、体重生长发育符合一般生长规律。7～13岁裕固族男女生身体偏瘦人数较多的问题值得关注, 建议改善该人群营养膳食, 加强各项体育锻炼。     

Bone microstructure and its hidden information

Human bone micromorphology gives clues to a variety of life history parameters, such as individual age, health status, and physical activity. In the course of an ongoing study, thin cross sections of femoral compact bone from three skeletal series are investigated for different purposes. The first series consists of 103 adult skeletons excavated from a 19th century hospital graveyard in Basel, Switzerland. Several disease- and stress-markers, like layers of arrested growth or other conspicuous microstructural composition were observed. Another 36 individuals come from the dissection room of the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich. These individuals have an average age at death of about 80 years and offer the possibility to investigate the micromorphological characteristics of individuals of very advanced age. Finally, 72 medieval subadult skeletons shall serve for the establishment of a relationship between individual age and bone microstructural parameters according to the different ontogenetic stages.     

The main trends in the palaeodemography of the 7th-18th century population of Latvia

The study represents palaeodemographic research of osteological material of 3304 individuals from the funds of the Anthropological Laboratory of the Institute of History of the University of Latvia in Riga, dating from the 7th to the 18th century AD. Compensated life expectancy at birth is varying between 20.3 and 22.2 years during the research period. Crude mortality has changed between 49.3 and 45% per hundred. In the early period (7th-13th century) there is a significant male prevalence (2.2-1.4); female life expectancy at the age of 20 is on average 6.6 years less than for males. This difference decreases to 5.4 years in the 13th-18th century. According to historical demography, female life span exceeded male only in the 2nd half of 19th century. The palaeodemographic data indicate that in the 7th-18th century, women in Latvia gave birth to a mean of 4-5 children (the figure includes childless women), of whom half, at most 2-2.5, reached reproductive age, on account of high child mortality. The net reproductive rate R0 (the number of descendants per individual of the parents' generation) varies between 1 and 1.25 in the study period. Concerning the completely excavated cemeteries of Lejasbiteni (7th-10h century) and Daudziesi (16th-17th century), it was possible to calculate the size and structure of the populations that had used these cemeteries. They were similar, having 45.3-49.9% of children up to an age of 14 and 24-28% individuals over the age of 30. According to historical demography, radical improvement of the demographic situation in Latvia began in the second half of the 19th century, when the process of demographic transition in Latvia started.     

Paleodemography of a medieval population in Japan: analysis of human skeletal remains from the Yuigahama-minami site

The purpose of this study is to obtain demographic data regarding the medieval population buried at the Yuigahama-minami site in Kamakura, Japan, and to detect a secular trend in the life expectancy of Japanese population over the last several thousand years. The Yuigahama-minami skeletal sample consists of 260 individuals, including 98 subadults (under 20 years old) and 162 adults. A Yuigahama-minami abridged life-table analysis yielded a life expectancy at birth (e0) of 24.0 years for both sexes, a life expectancy at age 15 years (e15) of 15.8 years for males, and an e15 of 18.0 years for females. The reliability of the estimated e0 was confirmed by analysis of the juvenility index. Demographic profiles comparing the Yuigahama-minami series with other skeletal series indicated that both the survivorship curve and life expectancy of the Yuigahama-minami sample are similar to those of the Mesolithic-Neolithic Jomon population, but are far lower than those of the early modern Edo population. These comparisons strongly suggest that life expectancy changed little over the thousands of years between the Mesolithic-Neolithic Jomon and medieval periods, but then improved remarkably during the few hundred years between the medieval period and early modern Edo period. The short-lived tendency of the Yuigahama-minami sample does not contradict the archaeological hypothesis of unsanitary living conditions in medieval Kamakura. This is the first investigation to address the demographic features of a medieval population in Japan, and will help refine our understanding of long-term trends in the demographic profiles of inhabitants of Japan.     

Correlation between plasma growth hormone and insulin and blood glucose concentrations in premature infants.

Plasma growth hormone, insulin and blood glucose levels were measured longitudinally during the first 60 days of life in 21 premature infants (8 males and 13 females) born between the 6th and 8th month of gestation. When these variables were related to age it was found that insulin and glucose, which are lower than in the prepubertal children and adults, rise simultaneously. Whereas growth hormone, which is higher than in older prepubertal children, decreases during the first 2 weeks of life. The decrease in growth hormone continues during the first 2 months of life, in contrast to the increases in insulin and glucose which do not persist in as long a period.     

Synthesis of natural allohemagglutinins of the ABO system in healthy children aged 3 months to 3 years

The work was carried out to establish the titre and score of haemagglutination of natural anti-A and anti-B antibodies in healthy children during the first three years of life. The material studied included 900 healthy children aged between 3 months and 3 years and 100 adults serving as controls. The method of test tube haemagglutination was used for determining the titre and score of alloagglutinins in relation to standard erythrocytes always obtained from the same donors. In addition, in 72 children and 10 adults the levels of IgG, IgA and IgM were determined quantitatively. A statistical analysis of the results showed that the levels of anti-A and anti-B alloagglutinins were relatively high at the age of 3 months / about 25% of the adult levels / and increased very rapidly in the first years of life reaching about 90% of the adult level at the end of the 3rd year of life. Besides that, it was demonstrated that it is useful in clinical practice to use the titre and score of natural alloagglutinins as indicators of humoral immunity, especially in children in the first years of life. Acceleration was demonstrated in the intensity of haemagglutination of natural antibodies in the last 40 years since their titre in the contemporary infantile population / up to the age of 1 year / is about 50% higher than that found in 1929. These findings suggest that increased immune reactivity of children observed presently may be due to prophylactic vaccinations.     

Clinical study of peanut and nut allergy in 62 consecutive patients: new features and associations.

OBJECTIVE--To investigate clinical features of acute allergic reactions to peanuts and other nuts. DESIGN--Analysis of data from consecutive patients seen by one doctor over one year in an allergy clinic at a regional referral centre. SUBJECTS--62 patients aged 11 months to 53 years seen between October 1993 and September 1994. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES--Type and severity of allergic reactions, age at onset of symptoms, type of nut causing allergy, results of skin prick tests, and incidence of other allergic diseases and associated allergies. RESULTS--Peanuts were the commonest cause of allergy (47) followed by Brazil nut (18), almond (14), and hazelnut (13). Onset of allergic symptoms occurred by the age of 2 years in 33/60 and by the age of 7 in 55/60. Peanuts accounted for all allergies in children sensitised in the first year of life and for 82% (27/33) of allergies in children sensitised by the third year of life. Multiple allergies appeared progressively with age. The commonest symptom was facial angioedema, and the major feature accounting for life threatening reactions was laryngeal oedema. Hypotension was uncommon. Of 55 patients, 53 were atopic--that is, had positive skin results of tests to common inhaled allergens--and all 53 had other allergic disorders (asthma, rhinitis, eczema) due to several inhaled allergens and other foods. CONCLUSIONS--Sensitisation, mainly to peanuts, is occurring in very young children, and multiple peanut/nut allergies appear progressively. Peanut and nut allergy is becoming common and can cause life threatening reactions. The main danger is laryngeal oedema. Young atopic children should avoid peanuts and nuts to prevent the development of this allergy.     

Follow-up Study of Physical Growth of Children Who Had Excessive Weight Gain in First Six Months of Life

The aim of this study was to determine whether excessive weight gain in the first six weeks, three months, or six months of life was correlated. with overweight and obesity at the age of 6 to 8 years. One hundred and thirty eight infants with excessive weight gain in the first six months of life, 53 children with slow weight gain, and 33 children with an average weight gain were re-examined at the age of 6, 7, or 8 years.The mean height and weight of children who had gained weight rapidly in infancy were significantly higher than those of children who had gained weight slowly; those of infants whose weight gain had been average fell in between. The number of obese children in the rapid-weight-gain group was significantly higher than that of the combined average and slow-weight-gain groups. The rapidity of weight gain in infancy was a better guide to the risk of overweight in later childhood than the weight of the parents.     

Early life stress, MAOA, and gene-environment interactions predict behavioral disinhibition in children

Several, but not all, studies have shown that the monoamine oxidase A functional promoter polymorphism ( MAOA-LPR ) interacts with childhood adversity to predict adolescent and adult antisocial behavior. However, it is not known whether MAOA-LPR interacts with early life (pre-birth–3 years) stressors to influence behavior in prepubertal children.
The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, UK, is a community-representative cohort study of children followed from pre-birth onwards. The impact of family adversity from pre-birth to age 3 years and stressful life events from 6 months to 7 years on behavioral disinhibition was determined in 7500 girls and boys. Behavioral disinhibition measures were: mother-reported hyperactivity and conduct disturbances (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire) at ages 4 and 7 years.
In both sexes, exposure to family adversity and stressful life events in the first 3 years of life predicted behavioral disinhibition at age 4, persisting until age 7. In girls, MAOA-LPR interacted with stressful life events experienced from 6 months to 3.5 years to influence hyperactivity at ages 4 and 7. In boys, the interaction of MAOA-LPR with stressful life events between 1.5 and 2.5 years predicted hyperactivity at age 7 years. The low activity MAOA-LPR variant was associated with increased hyperactivity in girls and boys exposed to high stress. In contrast, there was no MAOA-LPR interaction with family adversity.
In a general population sample of prepubertal children, exposure to common stressors from pre-birth to 3 years predicted behavioral disinhibition, and MAOA-LPR – stressful life event interactions specifically predicted hyperactivity.     

Correlations in the development of the spinal cord, dura mater and spinal canal in humans

The spinal cord axial structures (AS) (its dura mater and vertebral canal) demonstrate the greatest growth rate during the intrauterine period and on the 18th month. After birth for the dura mater this age is 3 years, and for the spinal cord and the vertebral canal--7 years of age. The pubertal jump in growth of these formations is noted during the adolescent age (17-21 years). During the first two decades AS demonstrate asymptotic type of growth. In AS development the following periods in common have been revealed: a) intensive growth in children up to 7 years of age; b) growth stabilization (from 8 up to 16 years of age); c) period of a relative morphological stability (22-35 years); d) period of unstable compensatory-adaptive rearrangements (36-60 years); e) period of involutive changes (61-90 years).