Persistence during Tasks with Horses in Relation to Social Support,General Self-efficacy and Self-esteem in Adolescents

ABSTRACT

In young people, interactions with horses may contribute to the development of social skills and self-efficacy. Our aim was to identify relationships between psychological variables and young people's experience of activities with horses. Participants in this study were 13–15-year-old adolescents (n = 25), given a 4-month intervention consisting of weekly sessions of stable work and horseback riding. We investigated the relationship between psychological variables from survey data with video-recorded behavioral observations during tasks and contact with horses. From the behavioral data, we calculated the frequency per hour of “trying again” when met with a challenge, as a measure of participants' persistence in horse-related tasks. The number of times per hour that that participant initiated contact with the horse was used as a measure of frequency of physical contact (petting). We examined correlations between the change from early to late stages of the intervention in trying again during horse-related tasks and for physical contact and three psychological variables measured prior to the intervention: perceived social support, self-esteem, and general self-efficacy. We detected an association between lower pretest levels of perceived social support and general self- efficacy, and an increase during the intervention in persistence of trying again when met with challenges during tasks with the horse. In a linear regression analysis, controlling for initial levels of persistence during horse-related tasks, self-esteem, and self-efficacy, social support was the only unique predictor of an increase in persistence during the intervention. No association was found between the psychological variables and change in frequency of petting the horse. The results indicate that adolescents with lower levels of perceived social support at the start of the intervention showed greater increases in their persistence in trying again after being met with challenges during horse-related tasks. Since persistence is a central aspect in the development of mastery of tasks, the possible positive social impact of the horse/stable environment should be given more attention in future intervention research.     

The Impact of Leadership Programme on Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy in School: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Background

Leadership training programs by experiential learning among adolescents are very popular worldwide and in particular developed countries, but there exists few studies which formally assessed their impact on the psychological well-being of program participants. This study evaluated the effectiveness of leadership training programs on self-esteem and self-efficacy among adolescents.

Methodology/Principal Findings

a total of 180 students of the same grade of one secondary school were randomized into an intervention (n = 50) and a control group (n = 130). The students in the intervention group participated in a 6-month program of leadership training and service learning, while the control group did not participate in any training. Their self-esteem and self-efficacy were assessed by Rosenberg Self-Esteem questionnaire and Chinese Adaptation of the General Self-Efficacy Scale, respectively, before and after the program. Both scales have been recognized internationally as valid and reliable survey instruments to measure these psychological attributes. The scores were compared by Student’s tests according to gender. A total of 180 students were enrolled during the study period October, 2009 to May, 2010. Their mean age was 15.18 years (0.62) and 56.7% were male. Students allocated to the intervention and control group had statistically similar demographic characteristics except gender (male 36.0% vs. 64.6%, p = 0.001). Overall, the self-esteem scores increased by 1.28 and decreased by 0.30 (p = 0.161) while the self-efficacy scores increased by 0.26 and decreased by 0.76 (p = 0.429) in the intervention and control group, respectively. Among female students, the intervention group showed significant improvements in both self-esteem (2.38 vs. −0.24, p<0.001) and self-efficacy (1.32 vs. –0.04, p = 0.043).

Conclusions/Significance

Leadership training program were not found to be effective to enhance self-esteem and self-efficacy in adolescents, except girls who showed modest increase in these outcomes. Future research should assess the reasons why these programs are effective among female.     

Early childhood stunting and later life outcomes: A longitudinal analysis

Using longitudinal data from four countries–Ethiopia, India, Peru and Vietnam– we show that early childhood stunting is highly persistent as measured by the association between stunting status in early childhood and stunting status at age 15. Stunting in early childhood is associated with lower grade completion by age 22 and has a negative relationship with cognition as measured by math, language and reading scores at ages 8, 12 and 15. Stunting in early childhood is also associated with poorer subjective assessment of a child’s health at age 15. Analyzing determinants, we show that lack of preventive care and economic shocks are associated with an increase in the probability of stunting in early childhood.     

Self-Esteem as a Mediator between Personality Traits and Body Esteem: Path Analyses across Gender and Race/Ethnicity

Prior literature examines the direct relationship between personality traits and body esteem. This article explores the possibility that self-esteem mediates this relationship. 165 undergraduate women and 133 men (age 18–21; 42.6% Hispanic, 28.9% Asian, 28.5% Caucasian) completed items measuring personality traits (Big Five), self-esteem, and body esteem. Path analyses were used to test for mediation. The analyses confirmed that in both men and women self-esteem mediated the relationship between three personality traits and body esteem: higher levels of conscientiousness, emotional stability, and extraversion were associated with higher self-esteem and consequently higher body esteem. Once self-esteem was included in the model the relationships between personality traits and body esteem were not significant, suggesting full mediation. In addition, the analyses revealed several racial/ethnic differences. In Asian American participants, self-esteem mediated the relationship between conscientiousness and body esteem and between emotional stability and body esteem. In Hispanic Americans, self-esteem mediated the relationship between conscientiousness and body esteem and between extraversion and body esteem. And in Caucasian Americans, self-esteem mediated the relationship between emotional stability and body esteem and between extraversion and body esteem. The most important contribution of this study is evidence for an indirect relationship between personality traits and body esteem, with this relationship being mediated by self-esteem. This has important implications for the study of personality and eating disorders in young adults, most particularly implying a need for more emphasis on self-esteem as a predictor of body image problems.     

Personality Predictors of Successful Development: Toddler Temperament and Adolescent Personality Traits Predict Well-Being and Career Stability in Middle Adulthood

The aim of the study was to predict both adaptive psychological functioning (well-being) and adaptive social functioning (career stability) in middle adulthood based on behaviors observed in toddlerhood and personality traits measured in adolescence. 83 people participated in an ongoing longitudinal study started in 1961 (58% women). Based on children’s behavior in toddlerhood, three temperamental dimensions were identified – positive affectivity, negative affectivity and disinhibition. In adolescence, extraversion and neuroticism were measured at the age of 16 years. Various aspects of well-being were used as indicators of adaptive psychological functioning in adulthood: life satisfaction, self-esteem and self-efficacy. Career stability was used as an indicator of adaptive social functioning. Job careers of respondents were characterized as stable, unstable or changeable. Extraversion measured at the age of 16 proved to be the best predictor of well-being indicators; in case of self-efficacy it was also childhood disinhibition. Extraversion in adolescence, childhood disinhibition and negative affectivity predicted career stability. Findings are discussed in the context of a theoretical framework of higher order factors of the Big Five personality constructs, stability and plasticity.     

Self-Esteem and Obesity in Children and Adolescents: A Literature Review

The relationship between self-esteem and obesity has not received a great deal of empirical evaluation using strong research methodologies. Thus, it is not clear whether self-esteem is consistently related to obesity, whether the relationship is global or specific to physical appearance, whether the relationship differs by demographic variables such as age, gender or race/ethnicity, or whether self-esteem moderates weight changes during weight loss treatment programs. This review examines these questions using empirical evidence from 35 studies on the relationship between self-esteem and obesity in children and adolescents. Thirteen of 25 cross sectional studies clearly showed lower self-esteem in obese adolescents and children. Five of the six cross-sectional studies that included a measure of body esteem found lower body esteem in obese compared to normal weight children and adolescents. Results from two prospective studies examining initial self-esteem and later obesity were inconsistent. Results from six of eight treatment studies showed that weight loss treatment programs appear to improve self-esteem. However, it is unclear whether increases in self-esteem are related to enhanced weight loss. Many studies were methodologically weak primarily due to small and select samples and lack of appropriate comparison groups. Implications for prevention and treatment of childhood obesity are discussed.     

Self‐stigma and the “why try” effect: impact on life goals and evidence‐based practices

Many individuals with mental illnesses are troubled by self-stigma and the subsequent processes that accompany this stigma: low self-esteem and self-efficacy. “Why try” is the overarching phenomenon of interest here, encompassing self-stigma, mediating processes, and their effect on goal-related behavior. In this paper, the literature that explains “why try” is reviewed, with special focus on social psychological models. Self-stigma comprises three steps: awareness of the stereotype, agreement with it, and applying it to one’s self. As a result of these processes, people suffer reduced self-esteem and self-efficacy. People are dissuaded from pursuing the kind of opportunities that are fundamental to achieving life goals because of diminished self-esteem and self-efficacy. People may also avoid accessing and using evidence-based practices that help achieve these goals. The effects of self-stigma and the “why try” effect can be diminished by services that promote consumer empowerment.     

Race, childhood insulin, childhood caloric intake, and class 3 obesity at age 24: 14-year prospective study of schoolgirls

The prevalence of Class 3 obesity (BMI ≥40 kg/m²) has more than doubled in the past 25 years. In a 14‐year prospective study from age 10 to 24 of a biracial schoolgirl cohort (293 black, 256 white), we assessed childhood correlates of Class 3 BMI at age 24. Of 42 girls with Class 3 BMI at age 24, 36 (86%) were black. By logistic regression, significant explanatory variables of Class 3 BMI at age 24 included top decile waist circumference at age 11 (odds ratio (OR) 5.7, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.3–13.9, P = 0.0002), age 10 BMI ≥ the Center for Disease Control (CDC) 2000 top 15% (OR 7.0, 95% CI 2.5–19.3, P = 0.0002), and a three‐way interaction between race, childhood insulin, and average caloric intake from age 10 to age 19 (for each unit increase, OR 1.7 95% CI 1.3–2.2, P = 0.0003). Age 10 BMI, age 11 waist circumference, and interaction of race, childhood insulin, and childhood caloric intake predict Class 3 obesity in young adulthood, facilitating childhood identification of girls at high risk for developing Class 3 obesity.     

Low self-esteem and psychiatric patients: Part II - The relationship between self-esteem and demographic factors and psychosocial stressors in psychiatric patients

BACKGROUND: The objective of the present study was to identify the effects and relative importance of demographic factors and psychosocial stressors on self-esteem of psychiatric patients. METHOD: The present study was carried out on a consecutive sample of 1,190 individuals attending an open-access psychiatric outpatient clinic. Patients were diagnosed according to DSM III-R diagnostic criteria following detailed assessments. At screening, patients and controls completed two self-esteem questionnaires, the Rosenberg self-esteem scale and the Janis and Field Social Adequacy scale. In addition, a large amount of demographic and psychosocial data was collected on all patients. RESULTS: Significantly increased self-esteem was observed with an increase in age, educational achievement and income. Employed patients showed significantly higher self-esteem compared to unemployed patients. Female patients had a significantly lower self-esteem compared to male patients. The self-esteem of psychiatric patients did not vary significantly with their marital status. No relationship was detected between acute stressors and the self-esteem of psychiatric patients, although severe enduring stressors were associated with lower self-esteem in psychiatric patients. CONCLUSION: The results of this large study demonstrate that the self-esteem of adult psychiatric patients is affected by a number of demographic and psychosocial factors including age, sex, educational status, income, employment status, and enduring psychosocial stressors.     

Seasonality and comparative dynamics of six childhood infections in pre-vaccination Copenhagen

Seasonal variation in infection transmission is a key determinant of epidemic dynamics of acute infections. For measles, the best-understood strongly immunizing directly transmitted childhood infection, the perception is that term-time forcing is the main driver of seasonality in developed countries. The degree to which this holds true across other acute immunizing childhood infections is not clear. Here, we identify seasonal transmission patterns using a unique long-term dataset with weekly incidence of six infections including measles. Data on age–incidence allow us to quantify the mean age of infection. Results indicate correspondence between dips in transmission and school holidays for some infections, but there are puzzling discrepancies, despite close correspondence between average age of infection and age of schooling. Theoretical predictions of the relationship between amplitude of seasonality and basic reproductive rate of infections that should result from term-time forcing are also not upheld. We conclude that where yearly trajectories of susceptible numbers are perturbed, e.g. via waning of immunity, seasonality is unlikely to be entirely driven by term-time forcing. For the three bacterial infections, pertussis, scarlet fever and diphtheria, there is additionally a strong increase in transmission during the late summer before the end of school vacations.     

Birth weight and other perinatal characteristics and childhood leukemia in California

Aims. We conducted a large registry-based study in California to investigate the association of perinatal factors and childhood leukemia with analysis of two major subtypes, acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Methods. We linked California cancer and birth registries to obtain information on 5788 cases and 5788 controls matched on age and sex (1:1). We examined the association of birth weight, gestational age, birth and pregnancy order, parental ages, and specific conditions during pregnancy and risk of total leukemia, ALL and AML using conditional logistic regression, with adjustment for potential confounders. Results. The odds ratio (OR) per 1000 g increase in birth weight was 1.11 for both total leukemia and ALL. The OR were highest for babies weighing ≥4500 g with reference <2500 g: 1.59 (95% CI: 1.05–2.40) and 1.70 (95% CI: 1.08–2.68) for total leukemia and ALL, respectively. For AML, increase in risk was also observed but the estimate was imprecise due to small numbers. Compared to average-for-gestational age (AGA), large-for-gestational age (LGA) babies were at slightly increased risk of total childhood leukemia (OR = 1.10) and both ALL and AML (OR = 1.07 and OR = 1.13, respectively) but estimates were imprecise. Being small-for-gestational age (SGA) was associated with reduced risk of childhood leukemia (OR = 0.81, 95% CI: 0.67–0.97) and ALL (OR = 0.77, 95% CI: 0.63–0.94), but not AML. Being first-born was associated with decreased risk of AML only (OR = 0.70; 95% CI: 0.53–0.93). Compared to children with paternal age <25 years, children with paternal age between 35 and 45 years were at increased risk of total childhood leukemia (OR = 1.12; 95% CI: 1.04–1.40) and ALL (OR = 1.23; 95% CI: 1.04–1.47). None of conditions during pregnancy examined or maternal age were associated with increased risk of childhood leukemia or its subtypes. Conclusions. Our results suggest that high birth weight and LGA were associated with increased risk and SGA with decreased risk of total childhood leukemia and ALL, being first-born was associated with decreased risk of AML, and advanced paternal age was associated with increased risk of ALL. These findings suggest that associations of childhood leukemia and perinatal factors depend highly on subtype of leukemia.     

Racial and ethnic differences in secular trends for childhood BMI, weight, and height

Objectives: The prevalence of childhood overweight in the United States has markedly increased over the last 30 years. We examined differences in the secular trends for BMI, weight, and height among white, black, and Mexican‐American children. Research Methods and Procedures: Analyses were based on nationally representative data collected from 2 to 17 year olds in four examinations (1971–1974 through 1999–2002). Results: Overall, black children experienced much larger secular increases in BMI, weight, and height than did white children. For example, over the 30‐year period, the prevalence of overweight increased ～3‐fold (4% to 13%) among 6‐ to 11‐year‐old white children but 5‐fold (4% to 20%) among black children. In most sex‐age groups, Mexican‐American children experienced increases in BMI and overweight that were between those experienced by blacks and whites. Race/ethnicity differences were less marked among 2 to 5 year olds, and in this age group, white children experienced the largest increase in overweight (from 4% to 9%). In 1999–2002, the prevalence of extreme BMI levels (≥99th percentile) reached 6% to 7% among black girls and Mexican‐American boys. Discussion: Because of the strong tracking of childhood BMI levels into adulthood, it is likely that the secular increases in childhood overweight will greatly increase the burden of adult disease. The further development of obesity interventions in different racial/ethnic groups should be emphasized.     

Perinatal photoperiod and childhood cancer: pooled results from 182,856 individuals in the international childhood cancer cohort consortium (I4C)

ABSTRACT

Experimental evidence suggests that perinatal light imprinting of circadian clocks and systems may affect downstream physiology and cancer risk in later life. For humans, the predominant circadian stimulus is the daily light-dark cycle. Herein, we explore associations between perinatal photoperiod characteristics (photoperiod: duration of daylight as determined by time-of-year and location) and childhood cancer risk. We use pooled data on 182,856 mothers and babies from prospective birth cohorts in six countries (Australia, Denmark, Israel, Norway, UK, USA) within the International Childhood Cancer Cohort Consortium (I4C). Cox proportional hazards regression was used to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). In line with predicted differential dose–responses, restricted cubic splines indicate a potential non-linear, non-monotonic relationship between perinatal mean daily photoperiod (0–24 h) and childhood cancer risk. In a restricted analysis of 154,121 individuals who experienced third trimester photoperiods exclusively within the 8–16-h range, the relative risk of developing childhood cancer decreased by 9% with every hour increase in third trimester mean daily photoperiod [HR: 0.91 (95%CIs: 0.84–0.99)]. In conclusion, in this first study of perinatal photoperiod and childhood cancer, we detected an inverse [“protective”] linear association between third trimester mean daily photoperiod and childhood cancer risk in the 8–16-h set of the total study population. Limited statistical power impeded the investigation of risks with individuals exposed to more extreme photoperiods. Future studies are needed to confirm differential photoperiod-associated risks and further investigations into the hypothesized circadian imprinting mechanism are warranted.     

Parental Migration,Self-Efficacy and Cigarette Smoking among Rural Adolescents in South China

Objectives

Millions of children and adolescents in rural China are left behind as their parents move away for work. Little is known about the impact of parental migration on their smoking and self-efficacy. This study explores the associations among parental migration, self-efficacy and smoking.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted among middle school students in Liangying Township, Guangdong, China. Socio-demographic and parental migration characteristics, as well as adolescent past 30-day smoking and self-efficacy level were collected using a self-administered questionnaire. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to estimate the risk of parental migration features for smoking and self-efficacy. Hierarchical regression was fitted to examine the relationship among parental migration, self-efficacy and smoking.

Results

2609 students (93.4%) participated into the study, 44% of who were with parents who had ever been or were currently migrating. Smoking prevalence was 9.7% in boys and 0.9% in girls. Paternal migration was protective for adolescent smoking, whilst maternal migration increased the risk. Both paternal and maternal migration had adverse effects on self-efficacy, a strong influencing factor for smoking. No significant relationship was found between other migration features and smoking and self-efficacy. The smoking risk of maternal migration was partly mediated by self-efficacy. There were no differences between boys and girls.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that adolescents whose mothers migrate from home to work elsewhere are at elevated risk for smoking. Improving self-efficacy may be an effective means to keep adolescents away from smoking, especially for those with maternal migration.     

Testosterone and Visceral Fat in Midlife Women: The Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN) Fat Patterning Study

Visceral fat (VF) increases with the menopause and is an independent predictor of the metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (CVD) in women. Little is known about how hormonal changes during the menopausal transition are related to the increase in VF. We aimed to determine the relationship between bioavailable testosterone and VF in middle‐aged women at various stages of the menopausal transition and whether this relationship is independent of age and other CVD risk factors. The Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN) is a longitudinal, community‐based study. This report uses baseline data from a population‐based longitudinal ancillary study at the Chicago site to examine the cross‐sectional relationship between testosterone and computed tomography (CT)–assessed VF in women at different stages of the menopausal transition. Included are 359 women (47.2% black), aged 42–60 years, who were randomly selected from a complete community census in which a 72% participation rate was achieved. In multivariate models, bioavailable testosterone was associated with VF independent of age, race, percent total body fat, and other cardiovascular risk factors. Bioavailable testosterone was a stronger predictor than estradiol and was interchangeable in its strength of association with sex hormone–binding globulin (SHBG). As bioavailable testosterone was associated with VF even after adjusting for insulin resistance, this suggests that it plays an important role in regional fat distribution. Our findings may have direct implications in explaining the effect of menopause‐related testosterone predominance on VF accumulation and subsequent cardiovascular risk.     

The relationship between abortion rates and economic fluctuations

We analyze the relationship between abortions and economic fluctuation at the U.S. state level for the 1995–2016 period. We do not find a statistically significant association between the overall abortion rate and the unemployment rate across the full sample period. However, we observe a procyclical association from approximately 2004 to 2010, during which a one percentage point increase in the unemployment rate is associated with a roughly 5% decrease in the abortion rate. This procyclical association is confirmed when we subsample our data to the 2005–2016 period. Our subgroup analysis indicates a procyclical association for the abortion rates for younger women, while we do not observe statistically significant associations when the analysis is stratified by race or ethnicity. The associations we observe for the younger age groups are especially pronounced in states with restrictions on Medicaid funding of abortions. Our analysis suggests that economic conditions may be an important factor in the reproductive choices by women.     

Self-Esteem and Change in Body Mass Index over 3 Years in a Cohort of Adolescents

Self-esteem has been hypothesized to be lower in obese adolescents relative to their normal weight peers and to be an important factor in preventing or reversing obesity. The present study examined the relationship between obesity and self-esteem cross-sectionally and prospectively over three years in a cohort of 1278 adolescents in grades 7 to 9 at baseline. Cross-sectional analyses revealed an inverse association between physical appearance self-esteem and body mass index in both males and females. In females, body mass index was inversely associated with global self-esteem, close friendship, and behavioral conduct self-esteem. In males, body mass index was inversely associated with athletic and romantic appeal self-esteem. Prospectively, in females, physical appearance and social acceptance self-esteem at baseline were inversely related to body mass index three years later. Baseline self-esteem was unrelated prospectively to change in body mass index in males. All associations were modest in magnitude. These results suggest that in a middle class white sample of adolescents, self-esteem specific to physical appearance is modestly associated with body mass index. Low self-esteem does not appear to predict the development of obesity over time.     

The Influence of Age on Male Mate‐Searching Behaviour in Thornbug Treehoppers

One prediction from life‐history theory is that males should increase investment in reproductive effort as they age because the opportunity for future reproductive events declines. However, older males may not be able to increase their reproductive effort if condition declines with age. The effect of age‐related changes in condition may be especially important for energetically costly activities such as moving within and between habitat patches while searching for mates. Although such searching is a component of many mating systems, the relationship between age and active mate searching has not been investigated. We investigated whether mate‐searching effort increased with age in the thornbug treehopper, Umbonia crassicornis (Hemiptera: Membracidae). In this species, males search for females using a ‘fly‐call‐walk’ strategy consisting of three phases: (1) flying from one plant to another; (2) walking and signalling while on a plant; and (3) close‐range courtship of encountered females. We measured several aspects of mate‐searching behaviour over the month‐long period of a male’s reproductive lifetime. Over the relevant period of male sexual activity (19–33 d), male condition remained stable. However, older males (25–33 d) did not search more actively than younger males as predicted; instead, younger males (19 d) had greater plant‐to‐plant flight activity and found females faster. Within‐plant walking rates and courtship duration did not differ among age classes. These results suggest that thornbug males may be investing so heavily in mate searching at younger ages that they are unable to increase investment in searching effort when they get older. As a result, older males are likely to be at a competitive disadvantage when active searching is required to locate sparsely distributed females.     

Associations of demographic and perinatal factors with childhood neuroblastoma in Texas, 1995–2011

BackgroundNeuroblastoma, the most common extracranial solid tumor in children, contributes disproportionately to childhood cancer mortality and few risk factors have been identified. Our objective was to evaluate associations between parental and infant characteristics and neuroblastoma incidence.MethodsChildren born in Texas between January 1995 and December 2011 were eligible for the present study. Cases (N = 637) were diagnosed with neuroblastoma in Texas during the same period; controls (N = 6370) matched on year of birth were randomly selected from birth certificates that did not link to a record in the Texas Cancer Registry. We obtained data on birth and parental demographic/reproductive characteristics from birth certificates, and estimated odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for neuroblastoma using logistic regression.ResultsGestational age 34–36 weeks at birth was associated with neuroblastoma (OR 1.45, CI 1.09–1.90), whereas female sex was inversely associated (OR 0.68, CI 0.58–0.81). Relative to children of non-Hispanic White women, children of Hispanic (OR 0.53, CI 0.43–0.64) or non-Hispanic Black (OR 0.52, CI 0.38–0.71) women were at reduced odds of neuroblastoma. When maternal and paternal race/ethnicity were evaluated jointly, similar patterns were observed (two non-Hispanic Black parents: OR 0.55, 95%CI 0.36–0.79; two Hispanic parents: OR 0.53, 95%CI 0.41–0.67). Older maternal age was also positively associated with neuroblastoma (OR 1.41, CI 1.04–1.90 for 35–39 years; OR 1.62, CI 0.87–2.81 for ≥40 years, relative to 25–29 years).ConclusionsFindings provide further evidence of racial/ethnic disparities in neuroblastoma incidence, determinants of which are unknown. In contrast to most published studies, we observed an association between maternal age and neuroblastoma. Further studies with more robust control for confounding are warranted.