Composting of olive leaves and pomace from a three-phase olive mill plant

The composting of olive leaves and olive pomace from a three-phase olive mill was tested as a method for solid waste reuse. The process was carried out using a compost windrow and mixing olive leaves and pomace at a ratio of 1:2. Compost was retained in the windrow for 60 days during which thermophilic temperatures developed for the first 40 days. The compost was then placed into a closed area to mature for another 60 days. The final product proved to be high quality amendment with C/N 27.1 and high nutrient concentrations (N, 1.79%; P, 0.17%; K, 4.97%; Na, 2.8%). Mature compost presented the highest germination index (198%) reported to date, as the germination index in the majority of previous studies is under 80%. Furthermore, tests revealed that addition of 31.5 tons of compost per ha, could increase lettuce yield by 145%.     

Demethyloleuropein and beta-glucosidase activity in olive fruits

Demethyloleuropein plays a major role in the defense mechanism of olive fruits. To understand how this molecule is metabolized during different stages of maturation of olive fruits, a biomolecular approach to identify the demethyloleuropein chemistry was employed. The beta-glucosidase activity in crude extracts was assayed spectrophotometrically using the chromogenic substrate p-nitrophenyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside. Demethyloleuropein was extracted and identified by HPLC-MS from both infected and uninfected olive fruits at different physiological stages. The release of more functionally relevant dialdehydes in uninfected fruits was investigated using ESIMS/ MS. In fruits harvested in October, the activity of beta-glucosidase was significantly enhanced in uninfected fruits when compared to the infected fruits. Quantitative differences in the demethyloleuropein content from uninfected fruits showed the highest values (5.09 mg/g) in October, whereas lower levels (4.44 mg/g) were found in infected fruits. The results demonstrated that demethyloleuropein derivatives could be influenced by beta-glucosidase activity to improve the quality of the olive products with the best dialdehyde nutraceutical content.     

Microbiological and physicochemical characterization of olive mill wastewaters from a continuous olive mill in Northeastern Portugal

The microbiological and physicochemical characterization of samples from the different wastewaters generated during oil extraction in a continuous olive mill was performed. The main aim was to determine which of the physicochemical parameters were the best fitted to correctly characterize these residual waters. High correlations were obtained for COD, DOC, K, P and N contents with the sampling points, allowing the distinction of olive washing waters (OWW) from olive centrifuge waters (OCW) and olive mill wastewaters (OMW). These parameters were sufficient for a rapid and less costly chemical characterization of these waters. Phenols and oil and grease contents, together with low pH and dissolved oxygen contents, and high organic loads, were the most toxic for microbial populations. Microbial characterization showed that fungi were well adapted to these stressing environmental characteristics and the reuse of OMW after aerobic treatment with microbial species isolated from the effluent is considered.     

Peroxidases and ethylene formation in olive tree leaves

The loss of intercellular peroxidases from olive tree leaf sections subjected to isoelectric focusing correlates well with the capacity of the referred sections to convert 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) into ethylene. Both activities are compared in leaves of different ages (according to their position on the branch) and it is found that they follow a parallel course. The inhibition of the capacity to convert ACC into ethylene in homogenized olive tree leaves is due to inhibitors release. The results, in relation to other authors' reports, are discussed.     

Metabolism of ethylene in olive leaves

Olive tree tissues are able to metabolize ethylene. This metabolism is inhibited by heat killing and carbon disulfide. Rubber stoppers usually employed to close the incubation vials release carbon disulfide, thereby modifying the values obtained for ethylene. The ethylene consumption rate has been found to be 9 nl/h.g, an intermediate value among the different plant tissues so far examined.     

Endosperm dormancy breakage in olive seeds

Seeds of Olea europaea L. ssp. oleaster Hoffm. and Link freed from the sclerous endoearp and incubated in water at 15 or 25°C in darkness or in 12:12 h white light:dark conditions, did not germinate, due to dormancy imposed by the endosperm. Seeds also did not germinate when incubated in abscisic acid, gibberellic acid, kinetin or zeatin in darkness and at cither 15 or 25°C. SAN 9789 |4-chloro-5-(methylamine)-2-(a,a,a-trifluoro-m-tolyl)-3-(2H)-pyridazmone] did not promote germination at 15°C but it did to a 75% level at 25°C. This promoting effect of SAN was counteracted by abscisic acid. Cultures of naked embryos grew equally well in the presence or absence of SAN 9789. 6-Benzylaminopurine promoted whole seed germination to a 15% level.     

Reproduction in wild female olive baboons

The purpose of this paper is to evaluate several factors that influence female reproduction in a large troop of wild olive baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis) based on 4 consecutive years of demographic data. Interbirth intervals were significantly shorter for females whose infants died before their next conception than for females whose infants survived. High-ranking mothers of surviving infants had significantly shorter birth intervals than comparable low-ranking mothers, independent of maternal age. This occurred mainly because the interval from resumption of cycling to conception was significantly shorter for high-vs. low-ranking females. Dominance rank did not influence sex ratio at birth, infant survival in the first 2 years, or adult female mortality. Age was also significantly related to interbirth intervals, with older females having shorter intervals. Primiparous females had consistently longer reproductive intervals than did multiparous females, but this difference reached statistical significance only for females whose infants died before the next conception. Primiparous females also experienced significantly higher infant mortality. Data on body size and estrous cycle length indicated no differences between high- and low-ranking females. Nutritional and stress-related mechanisms that may underlie the reproductive advantages of high rank are discussed.     

Antimicrobial activity of olive mill wastewaters (alpechin) and biotransformed olive oil mill wastewater

Olive oil extraction produces a great volume of residue. These olive mill wastes are known as alpechin. This wastewater is a powerful pollutant, resistant to degradation and presents a severe environmental problem related to its high organic content made up largely of simple phenolic compounds, that have been described as being both antimicrobial and phytotoxic. This paper reviews briefly the antimicrobial activity of olive mill wastewaters and provides evidence to show the potential of micro organisms (Bacillus pumilus) to reduce the phenol content of alpechin, and also that biotransformation depends on the dilution (v/v) of the alpechin. Furthermore, we sought to provide a real evaluation of the extent of alpechin biotransformation. This was achieved by means of an internal reference, i.e. in relative terms, the phenol content resulting from the biotransformation process. The phenol content was measured using HPLC techniques, and results were obtained showing that the bacterium had most effect in reducing the phenol content of alpechin at concentrations of between 40 and 100%. It was also observed that at concentrations of 80%, in addition to a slight reduction in total phenols, new phenolic compounds, not present in the original alpechin, were generated.     

Mitochondrial DNA variation and RAPD mark oleasters,olive and feral olive from Western and Eastern Mediterranean

The study of genetic diversity within the olive-tree (cultivated and wild forms) may be useful to reveal agronomic traits in the wild germplasm and to try to understand the history of the olive-tree domestication. In this way, a study of nuclear and mitochondrial DNAs of cultivated and wild olives from two Corsican and Sardinian Mediterranean islands was performed using RAPD and RFLP markers. Our results show that most of the varieties and most of the oleasters were separated using the UPGMA dendrogram based on the Nei and Li similarity index. Most of oleasters carried either the MOM or MCK mitotype, characteristic of olives in the Western Mediterranean, whereas most of the varieties carried the ME1 mitotype, characteristic of olives in the East Mediterranean. The results indicate that the combination of mitotype and RAPD markers can be used as a powerful tool for differentiating two groups in the wild forms: the Western true oleasters and the feral forms. The true oleasters are characterized by a Western mitotype and a Western RAPD pattern. Feral forms originate either from varieties or from hybridisation between a variety and an oleaster. Consequently, as expected, some of them aggregated with the varieties from which they were derived. The other feral forms are clustered with the oleasters and were detected only by their mitotype determination. This study has also permitted us to differentiate two populations of cultivated olives in Corsica: one with close relationships with Italian varieties (influenced by the East) and one selected from local oleasters probably due to a better local adaptation than foreign varieties.     

Seaweed polysaccharides as bio-elicitors of natural defenses in olive trees against verticillium wilt of olive

Ulvan, carrageenan, alginate and laminarin were tested in olive trees’ twigs to elicit phenolic metabolism and control verticillium wilt of olive (VWO) caused by Verticillium dahliae. The elicitation effect was determined through phenylalanine ammonia-lyase activity, total polyphenol content and lignin content. VWO was assessed in twigs previously elicited (24?h) and maintained in a solution containing bio-elicitors (2?g/L) and conidial suspension (10⁶?conidia/mL). Our results showed stimulation of the phenolic metabolism and the decline of wilt symptoms. Ulvan reduced significantly the area under the disease progress curve for severity to 39.9% and the final incidence to 28.9%. Ulvan and alginate produced significant inhibitory rates on mycelial growth of the fungus in vitro. Seaweed polysaccharides might help to overcome VWO by strengthening the host defense metabolism and restricting the pathogen’s growth.     

Bifurcation of orbits and synchrony in inferior olive neurons

Inferior olive neurons (IONs) have rich dynamics and can exhibit stable, unstable, periodic, and even chaotic trajectories. This paper presents an analysis of bifurcation of periodic orbits of an ION when its two key parameters (a, μ) are varied in a two-dimensional plane. The parameter a describes the shape of the parabolic nonlinearity in the model and μ is the extracellular stimulus. The four-dimensional ION model considered here is a cascade connection of two subsystems (S(a) and S(b)). The parameter plane (a - μ) is delineated into several subregions. The ION has distinct orbit structure and stability property in each subregion. It is shown that the subsystem S(a) or S(b) undergoes supercritical Poincare-Andronov-Hopf (PAH) bifurcation at a critical value μ(c)(a) of the extracellular stimulus and periodic orbits of the neuron are born. Based on the center manifold theory, the existence of periodic orbits in the asymptotically stable S(a), when the subsystem S(b) undergoes PAH bifurcation, is established. In such a case, both subsystems exhibit periodic orbits. Interestingly when S(b) is under PAH bifurcation and S(a) is unstable, the trajectory of S(a) exhibits periodic bursting, interrupted by periods of quiescence. The bifurcation analysis is followed by the design of (i) a linear first-order filter and (ii) a nonlinear control system for the synchronization of IONs. The first controller uses a single output of each ION, but the nonlinear control system uses two state variables for feedback. The open-loop and closed-loop responses are presented which show bifurcation of orbits and synchronization of oscillating neurons.     

Charred olive stones: experimental and archaeological evidence for recognizing olive processing residues used as fuel

After extracting oil from olives a residue is left usually referred to as the olive oil processing residue (OPR). This study explores the way in which ancient societies may have used OPR as fuel for fires to generate heat and the various issues that are related to the residues of this fuel. After drying, the high heating value and structure of OPR makes it an excellent and efficient fuel. Upgrading OPR further, through thermal conversion or charring, provides an even more efficient fuel (COPR), with a hotter and smoke free flame, a higher heating value and which is lighter in mass and thus easier to transport. After a fire is extinguished two types of remains of the fuel are left i.e. char and ash. Analyses on both remains, recovered from archaeological deposits, could be used as a source of information on fuel utilization. Laboratory experiments on charred modern OPR and stones show that by measuring their reflectance and analyzing their structure under reflected light microscopy, OPR and COPR can be distinguished in the charred material recovered from three archaeological sites in Greece and Syria. Based on these investigations it is suggested that on the three sites COPR was used as fuel. Ash, sampled together with the char, provides the possibility of investigating if other types of fuel were used, apart from OPR or COPR. On the investigated sites no ash was collected, but the analysis of the modern OPR showed that the properties of its ash could be used to distinguish it from other types of fuel. Ash from modern OPR and olive stones showed the presence of phytoliths. The often discussed issue related to the sharpness and smoothness of the edges of charred fragmented olive stones was investigated. The results showed that this is not a reliable criterion for recognizing olive oil production. It is recommended that in addition to the identification of the botanical material more properties of the remains of fuels should be analysed. To prevent destroying and losing char and ash as a result of excavation activities such as flotation and sieving, special measures have to be taken. The results show that analysing char and ash may provide valuable information on the (pyro)technology practised in ancient societies.     

The social contingency model and olive baboons

A theoretical and illustrative analysis of sequences of actions between pairs of olive baboons (Papio cynocephals anubis) is carried out using the social contingency model originally suggested by Jones and Gerard (1967) in social psychology. The model provides the basis for a step-by-step analysis and a typology. Signals from body postures, facial expressions, and vocalizations are subject to close study by using the model, in a similar fashion to its use in social skills analysis (Argyle, 1988). Sequences are categorized according to individual and joint strategies. Examples are given of three categories of contingency, reactive, mutual, and asymmetrical, which are adapted from their social psychological usage. The model is extended by a new category for competitive relationships between baboons: a conflictive category. The contingencies, as they are shown graphically, have a superficial resemblance to Tinbergen's (1951) zigzag diagrams, but their purpose is distinct in focusing on the detail of both infrequent and repeated interactions. The overall aim of the contingencies is to improve the analysis of social behavior at the proximate level and the model is potentially applicable to observation records at a level of detail that is often not utilized in reporting field studies.     

Analysis of minor components in olive oil

Virgin olive oil is well known for its high content of phenolic substances that are thought to have health-promoting properties. These substances also contribute to the distinctive taste of the oil. In this study, tyrosol, vanillic acid, luteolin, and apigenin were identified and quantified by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS). In the seven samples analysed, tyrosol, the most abundant, was in the range of 1.4-29 mg/kg, vanillic acid was in the range of 0.67-4.0 mg/kg, luteolin was in the range of 0.22-7.0 mg/kg, and apigenin was in the range of 0.68-1.6 mg/kg. It was also shown that in olive oil, squalene can be analysed by using a refractive index detector. In the samples analysed, squalene occurred in the range of 3.9-9.6 g/l.     

Effect of fungal species involved in the olive fruit rot on the qualitative properties of olive oil

Olive oil is the most important product of olive fruits with worldwide consumption, particularly in Mediterranean countries. Olive oil is generally extracted mechanically from the olive fruits. Some biotic and abiotic factors may affect the quality of oil extracted from olive fruit. Contamination with fungi during growth period in the garden or during the conservation of the harvested crop under storage condition may leave negative effects on the quality of olive oil. However, there is no data available on the effects of fungal infections on qualitative properties of olive oil in Iran. In the present study effects of several fungal groups previously isolated from rotten olive fruit in olive orchards including Alternaria alternata, Fusarium nygamai, Aspergillus ochraceus, Arthrinium phaeospermum, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Aureobasidium pullulans, Epicoccum nigrum, Penicillium expansum, Truncatella angustata, Trichothecium roseum and Trichoderma harzianum were evaluated on some qualitative properties of olive oil, under laboratory condition on two olive cultivars (Zard & Roghani). For this purpose fresh and healthy fruits of olive, were surface sterilisation with 96% ethanol and rinsed with sterile water and then inoculated with each of the fungal groups separately using spore suspension (10^6?ml^?1). The experiment was carried out in two replicates for each treatment (fungal isolates). The results of this study revealed that fungal infection caused significant increase in the extracted oil acidity and peroxide values. However, there was no significant difference in the acidity and peroxide values among different treatments (fungal isolates).     

Endogenous cytokinins in maturing manzanillo olive fruits

Cytokinin activity was found in mature black olive fruits while in green fruits the activity was markedly lower. The substances with cytokinin activity showed chromatographic properties similar to those of nucleotides. Acid hydrolysis caused a shift of the active zone in the organic phase of 1-butanol-acetic acid-water (4:1:5) from R_F 0.1 to R_F 0.8. The possible relation of these endogenously appearing cytokinins to anthocyanin accumulation and aging of the fruit is discussed.