Complete sequence and genomic analysis of murine gammaherpesvirus 68.

Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (gammaHV68) infects mice, thus providing a tractable small-animal model for analysis of the acute and chronic pathogenesis of gammaherpesviruses. To facilitate molecular analysis of gammaHV68 pathogenesis, we have sequenced the gammaHV68 genome. The genome contains 118,237 bp of unique sequence flanked by multiple copies of a 1,213-bp terminal repeat. The GC content of the unique portion of the genome is 46%, while the GC content of the terminal repeat is 78%. The unique portion of the genome is estimated to encode at least 80 genes and is largely colinear with the genomes of Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV; also known as human herpesvirus 8), herpesvirus saimiri (HVS), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). We detected 63 open reading frames (ORFs) homologous to HVS and KSHV ORFs and used the HVS/KSHV numbering system to designate these ORFs. gammaHV68 shares with HVS and KSHV ORFs homologous to a complement regulatory protein (ORF 4), a D-type cyclin (ORF 72), and a G-protein-coupled receptor with close homology to the interleukin-8 receptor (ORF 74). One ORF (K3) was identified in gammaHV68 as homologous to both ORFs K3 and K5 of KSHV and contains a domain found in a bovine herpesvirus 4 major immediate-early protein. We also detected 16 methionine-initiated ORFs predicted to encode proteins at least 100 amino acids in length that are unique to gammaHV68 (ORFs M1 to 14). ORF M1 has striking homology to poxvirus serpins, while ORF M11 encodes a potential homolog of Bcl-2-like molecules encoded by other gammaherpesviruses (gene 16 of HVS and KSHV and the BHRF1 gene of EBV). In addition, clustered at the left end of the unique region are eight sequences with significant homology to bacterial tRNAs. The unique region of the genome contains two internal repeats: a 40-bp repeat located between bp 26778 and 28191 in the genome and a 100-bp repeat located between bp 98981 and 101170. Analysis of the gammaHV68, HVS, EBV, and KSHV genomes demonstrated that each of these viruses have large colinear gene blocks interspersed by regions containing virus-specific ORFs. Interestingly, genes associated with EBV cell tropism, latency, and transformation are all contained within these regions encoding virus-specific genes. This finding suggests that pathogenesis-associated genes of gammaherpesviruses, including gammaHV68, may be contained in similarly positioned genome regions. The availability of the gammaHV68 genomic sequence will facilitate analysis of critical issues in gammaherpesvirus biology via integration of molecular and pathogenetic studies in a small-animal model.     

Disruption of the murine gammaherpesvirus 68 M1 open reading frame leads to enhanced reactivation from latency

Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (gammaHV68, or MHV-68) is a genetically tractable, small animal model for the analysis of gammaherpesvirus pathogenesis. The gammaHV68 genome is colinear with the genomes of other sequence gammaherpesviruses, containing large blocks of conserved genes interspersed by a number of putative genes without clear homologs in the other gammaherpesviruses. One of these putative unique genes, the M1 open reading frame (ORF), exhibits sequence homology to a poxvirus serine protease inhibitor, SPI-1, as well as to another gammaHV68 gene, M3, which we have recently shown encodes an abundantly secreted chemokine binding protein. To assess the contribution of the M1 ORF to gammaHV68 pathogenesis, we have generated a recombinant gammaHV68 in which the M1 ORF has been disrupted through targeted insertion of a lacZ expression cassette (M1.LacZ). Although M1.LacZ replicated normally in tissue culture, it exhibited decreased splenic titers at days 4 and 9 postinfection in both immunocompetent and immunodeficient mice. Despite decreased levels of acute virus replication, M1.LacZ established a latent infection comparable to wild-type (wt) gammaHV68, but exhibited an approximately fivefold increase in efficiency of reactivation from latency. M1.LacZ also caused severe vasculitis of the great elastic arteries in gamma interferon receptor (IFN-gammaR)-deficient mice with a frequency comparable to wt gammaHV68, but did not cause the mortality or splenic pathology observed with wt gammaHV68 infection of IFN-gammaR-deficient mice. Restoration of M1 ORF sequences into M1.LacZ (M1 marker rescue, or M1.MR) demonstrated that M1.LacZ phenotypic alterations in growth in vivo and latency were not due to the presence of additional mutations located elsewhere in the M1. LacZ genome. Generation of a second M1 mutant virus containing a deletion at the 5' end of the M1 ORF (M1Delta511), but lacking the LacZ expression cassette, revealed the same latency phenotype observed with the M1.LacZ mutant. However, M1Delta511 was not attenuated for acute virus replication in the spleen. We conclude that (i) the induction of arteritis in gammaHV68-infected IFN-gammaR-deficient mice can occur in the absence of splenic pathology and mortality, (ii) replication during acute infection is not the primary determinant for the establishment of latent infection, and (iii) the M1 ORF, or a closely linked gene, encodes a gene product that functions to suppress virus reactivation.     

Granzymes and caspase 3 play important roles in control of gammaherpesvirus latency

Gammaherpesviruses can establish lifelong latent infections in lymphoid cells of their hosts despite active antiviral immunity. Identification of the immune mechanisms which regulate gammaherpesvirus latent infection is therefore essential for understanding how gammaherpesviruses persist for the lifetime of their host. Recently, an individual with chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection was found to have mutations in perforin, and studies using murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (gammaHV68) as a small-animal model for gammaherpesvirus infection have similarly revealed a critical role for perforin in regulating latent infection. These results suggest involvement of the perforin/granzyme granule exocytosis pathway in immune regulation of gammaherpesvirus latent infection. In this study, we examined gammaHV68 infection of knockout mice to identify specific molecules within the perforin/granzyme pathway which are essential for regulating gammaherpesvirus latent infection. We show that granzymes A and B and the granzyme B substrate, caspase 3, are important for regulating gammaHV68 latent infection. Interestingly, we show for the first time that orphan granzymes encoded in the granzyme B gene cluster are also critical for regulating viral infection. The requirement for specific granzymes differs for early versus late forms of latent infection. These data indicate that different granzymes play important and distinct roles in regulating latent gammaherpesvirus infection.     

Identification of proteins associated with murine gammaherpesvirus 68 virions

Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV68 [also known as gammaHV-68]) is distinguished by its ability to replicate to high titers in cultured cells, making it an excellent candidate for studying gammaherpesvirus virion composition. Extracellular MHV68 virions were isolated, and abundant virion-associated proteins were identified by mass spectrometry. Five nucleocapsid protein homologues, the tegument protein homologue encoded by open reading frame (ORF) 75c, and envelope glycoproteins B and H were detected. In addition, gene products from MHV68 ORF20, ORF24, ORF28, ORF45, ORF48, and ORF52 were identified in association with virions, suggesting that these gammaherpesvirus genes are involved in the early phase of infection or virion assembly and egress.     

Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 ORF52 encodes a tegument protein required for virion morphogenesis in the cytoplasm

The tegument, a semiordered matrix of proteins overlying the nucleocapsid and underlying the virion envelope, in viruses in the gamma subfamily of Herpesviridae is poorly understood. Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68) is a robust model for studying gammaherpesvirus virion structure, assembly, and composition, as MHV-68 efficiently completes the lytic phase and productively infects cultured cells. We have found that MHV-68 ORF52 encodes an abundant tegument protein conserved among gammaherpesviruses. Detergent sensitivity experiments revealed that the MHV-68 ORF52 protein is more tightly bound to the virion nucleocapsid than the ORF45 tegument protein but could be dissociated from particles that retained the ORF65 small capsomer protein. ORF52, tagged with enhanced green fluorescent protein or FLAG epitope, localized to the cytoplasm. A recombinant MHV-68 bacterial artificial chromosome mutant with a nonsense mutation incorporated into ORF52 exhibited viral DNA replication, expression of late lytic genes, and capsid assembly and packaging at levels near those of the wild type. However, the MHV-68 ORF52-null virus was deficient in the assembly and release of infectious virion particles. Instead, partially tegumented capsids produced by the ORF52-null mutant accumulated in the cytoplasm, containing conserved capsid proteins, the ORF64 and ORF67 tegument proteins, but virtually no ORF45 tegument protein. Thus, ORF52 is essential for the tegumentation and egress of infectious MHV-68 particles in the cytoplasm, suggesting an important conserved function in gammaherpesvirus virion morphogenesis.     

The murine gammaherpesvirus 68 v-cyclin gene is an oncogene that promotes cell cycle progression in primary lymphocytes

Several gammaherpesviruses contain open reading frames encoding proteins homologous to mammalian D-type cyclins. In this study, we analyzed the expression and function of the murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (gammaHV68) viral cyclin (v-cyclin). The gammaHV68 v-cyclin gene was expressed in lytically infected fibroblasts as a leaky-late mRNA of approximately 0.9 kb encoding a protein of approximately 25 kDa. To evaluate the effect of the gammaHV68 v-cyclin on cell cycle progression in primary lymphocytes and to determine if the gammaHV68 v-cyclin gene is an oncogene, we generated transgenic mice by using the lck proximal promoter to express the gammaHV68 v-cyclin in early T cells. Expression of the gammaHV68 v-cyclin significantly increased the number of thymocytes in cell culture, as determined by measuring both DNA content and incorporation of 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine following in vivo pulse-labeling. Expression of the gammaHV68 v-cyclin interfered with normal thymocyte maturation, as shown by increased numbers of CD4(+) CD8(+) double-positive thymocytes and decreased numbers of CD4(+) or CD8(+) single-positive and T-cell-receptor-bright thymocytes and splenocytes in transgenic mice. Despite increased numbers of cycling thymocytes, gammaHV68-v-cyclin-transgenic mice did not have proportionately increased thymocyte numbers, and staining by terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling demonstrated increased apoptosis in the thymi of v-cyclin-transgenic mice. Fifteen of 38 gammaHV68-v-cyclin-transgenic mice developed high-grade lymphoblastic lymphoma between 3 and 12 months of age. We conclude that (i) the gammaHV68 v-cyclin is expressed as a leaky-late gene in lytically infected cells, (ii) expression of the gammaHV68 v-cyclin in thymocytes promotes cell cycle progression and inhibits normal T-cell differentiation, and (iii) the gammaHV68 v-cyclin gene is an oncogene.     

A gammaherpesvirus 68 gene 50 null mutant establishes long-term latency in the lung but fails to vaccinate against a wild-type virus challenge

The gammaherpesvirus immediate-early genes are critical regulators of virus replication and reactivation from latency. Rta, encoded by gene 50, serves as the major transactivator of the lytic program and is highly conserved among all the gammaherpesviruses, including Epstein-Barr virus, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, and murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (gammaHV68). Introduction of a translation stop codon in gammaHV68 gene 50 (gene 50.stop gammaHV68) demonstrated that Rta is essential for virus replication in vitro. To investigate the role that virus replication plays in the establishment and maintenance of latency, we infected mice with gene 50.stop gammaHV68. Notably, the gene 50.stop virus established a long-term infection in lung B cells following intranasal infection of mice but was unable to establish latency in the spleen. This complete block in the establishment of latency in the spleen was also seen when lytic virus production was inhibited by treating mice infected with wild-type virus with the antiviral drug cidofovir, implicating virus replication and not an independent function of Rta in the establishment of splenic latency. Furthermore, we showed that gene 50.stop gammaHV68 was unable to prime the immune system and was unable to protect against a challenge with wild-type gammaHV68, despite its ability to chronically infect lung B cells. These data indicate gammaherpesviruses that are unable to undergo lytic replication in vivo may not be viable vaccine candidates despite the detection of cells harboring viral genome at late times postinfection.     

Characterization of a spontaneous 9.5-kilobase-deletion mutant of murine gammaherpesvirus 68 reveals tissue-specific genetic requirements for latency

Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (gammaHV68 [also known as MHV-68]) establishes a latent infection in mice, providing a small-animal model with which to identify host and viral factors that regulate gammaherpesvirus latency. While gammaHV68 establishes a latent infection in multiple tissues, including splenocytes and peritoneal cells, the requirements for latent infection within these tissues are poorly defined. Here we report the characterization of a spontaneous 9.5-kb-deletion mutant of gammaHV68 that lacks the M1, M2, M3, and M4 genes and eight viral tRNA-like genes. Previously, this locus has been shown to contain the latency-associated M2, M3, and viral tRNA-like genes. Through characterization of this mutant, we found that the M1, M2, M3, M4 genes and the viral tRNA-like genes are dispensable for (i) in vitro replication and (ii) the establishment and maintenance of latency in vivo and reactivation from latency following intraperitoneal infection. In contrast, following intranasal infection with this mutant, there was a defect in splenic latency at both early and late times, a phenotype not observed in peritoneal cells. These results indicate (i) that there are different genetic requirements for the establishment of latency in different latent reservoirs and (ii) that the genetic requirements for latency depend on the route of infection. While some of these phenotypes have been observed with specific mutations in the M1 and M2 genes, other phenotypes have never been observed with the available gammaHV68 mutants. These studies highlight the importance of loss-of-function mutations in defining the genetic requirements for the establishment and maintenance of herpesvirus latency.     

草鱼CD81基因的克隆及功能分析

为研究白细胞表面分化抗原81(CD81)的功能, 对草鱼CD81进行了克隆, CD81全长共1376 bp, 其中5'非翻译区87 bp, 3'非翻译区581 bp, 开放阅读框为708 bp, 包括8个外显子, 7个内含子, 编码235个氨基酸。实验采用实时荧光定量PCR的方法检测了CD81在健康草鱼不同组织中的表达情况及草鱼出血病病毒(GCRV)攻毒前后的表达变化情况。结果显示草鱼CD81在所有被检测组织中均有表达, 在头肾中表达量最高。在GCRV攻毒前后草鱼鳃、脾、肝、肠及头肾5个组织中的CD81表达量均有明显变化。同时, 采用绿色荧光蛋白(GFP)来示踪CD81的亚细胞表达部位, 激光共聚焦显微镜显示, 同人类一样, 草鱼CD81定位于细胞膜上。       

猪I-FABP基因的分子克隆与组织特异性表达分析

小肠型脂肪酸结合蛋白对长链脂肪酸具有高度的亲和力,参与脂肪酸的吸收和细胞内转运。利用cDNA末端快速扩增（RACE）技术并结合同源克隆策略,克隆到了编码猪小肠型脂肪酸结合蛋白基因（I-FABP）的全长cDNA序列（GenBank接受号：AY960624）,并对系统发育关系等进行了生物信息学分析。猪I-FABP基因的cDNA序列全长614 bp,其中包括399bp的开放式读码框（ORF）,43bp的5’末端非编码区（5’URT）和172bp的3’末端非编码区（3’URT）,编码132个氨基酸残基蛋白,在氨基酸水半上与其他物种的I-FABP具有高度的同源性。以邻接法（Neigbor-Joining,NJ）所构建的系统发育关系表明,猪I-FABP与其他物种的,I-FABP属于同一类群,且与人的遗传距离最近。Northern杂交和半定量RT—PCR分析发现,猪I-FABP在猪体组织中出现约620bp大小的转录本,且在猪体组织中广泛存在,但在小肠组织中表达量最为丰富。