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One- and Two-Locus Population Models With Differential Viability Between Sexes: Parallels Between Haploid Parental Selection and Genomic Imprinting 
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下载免费PDF全文 Alexey Yanchukov 《Genetics》2009,182(4):1117-1127
A model of genomic imprinting with complete inactivation of the imprinted allele is shown to be formally equivalent to the haploid model of parental selection. When single-locus dynamics are considered, an internal equilibrium is possible only if selection acts in the opposite directions in males and females. I study a two-locus version of the latter model, in which maternal and paternal effects are attributed to the single alleles at two different loci. A necessary condition for the allele frequency equilibria to remain on the linkage equilibrium surface is the multiplicative interaction between maternal and paternal fitness parameters. In this case the equilibrium dynamics are independent at both loci and results from the single-locus model apply. When fitness parameters are additive, analytic treatment was not possible but numerical simulations revealed that stable polymorphism characterized by association between loci is possible only in several special cases in which maternal and paternal fitness contributions are precisely balanced. As in the single-locus case, antagonistic selection in males and females is a necessary condition for the maintenance of polymorphism. I also show that the above two-locus results of the parental selection model are very sensitive to the inclusion of weak directional selection on the individual''s own genotypes.PARENTAL genetic effects refer to the influence of the mother''s and father''s genotypes on the phenotypes of their offspring, not attributable just to the transfer of genes. Examples have been documented across a wide range of areas of organism biology; see, for example, Wade (1998) and and22 in Rasanen and Kruuk (2007). Parental selection is a more formal concept used in theoretical modeling and concerns situations where the fitness of the offspring depends, besides other factors, on the genotypes of its parent(s) (generalizing from Kirkpatrick and Lande 1989).
Open in a separate windowParentheses in the first column indicate maternal genotype (parental selection model) or inactivation of the maternally derived allele (imprinting model). Whether selection occurs at the diploid (first column) or subsequent haploid (second column) stage does not change the resulting allele frequencies.
Open in a separate windowAnother well-known parent-of-origin phenomenon is genomic imprinting. Here, the level of expression of one of the alleles depends on which parent it is inherited from. Often it is difficult to tell apart the phenotypic patterns due to parental effects and genomic imprinting, and thus a problem arises in the process of identifying the candidate genes for such effects (Hager et al. 2008). Analytic methods (Weinberg et al. 1998; Santure and Spencer 2006; Hager et al. 2008) have been developed to quantify subtle differences between the two. In this article, I point out that a simple mathematical model, first suggested for genomic imprinting at a diploid locus, can be interpreted, without any formal changes, to describe parental selection on haploids.While there has been much progress in understanding the evolution of genomic imprinting (Hunter 2007), including advances in modeling (Spencer 2000, 2008), the population genetics theory of parental effects received less attention. Existing major-locus effect models of parental selection are single-locus, two-allele, and mostly concern uniparental (maternal) selection (Wright 1969; Spencer 2003; Gavrilets and Rice 2006; Santure and Spencer 2006), with only one specific case where the fitness effects of both parents interact studied by Gavrilets and Rice (2006). No attempt to extend this theory into multilocus systems has yet been made. Considering a two-locus model with both parents playing a role in selection on the offspring is called for by the observation that many maternal and paternal effects aim at the different traits or different life stages of their progeny. Among birds, for example, body condition soon after hatching is largely determined by the mother, while paternally transmitted sexual display traits develop much later in life (Price 1998). Such effects are therefore unlikely to be regulated within a single locus. Sometimes the effects are on the same trait, but still attributed to different loci: expression of gene Avy that causes the “agouti” phenotype (yellow fur coat and obesity) in mice is enhanced by maternal epigenetic modification (Rakyan et al. 2003), while paternal mutations at the other locus, MommeD4, contribute to a reverse phenotypic pattern in the offspring (Rakyan et al. 2003). The epigenetic state of the murine AxinFu allele is both maternally and paternally inherited (Rakyan et al. 2003).Focusing selection on haploids reduces the number of genotypes that need to be taken into account, while preserving the main properties of the multilocus system. Genes with haploid expression and a potential of parental effects can be found in two major taxonomic kingdoms. A notable candidate is Spam1 in mice, which is expressed during spermogenesis and encodes a factor that enables sperm to penetrate the egg cumulus (Zheng et al. 2001). This gene remains a target for effectively haploid selection, because its product is not shared via cytoplasm bridges between developing spermatides. Mutations at Spam1 alter performance of the male gametes that carry it and might indirectly, perhaps by altering the timing of fertilization, affect the fitness of the zygote. The highest estimated number of mouse genes expressed in the male gametes is currently 2375 (Joseph and Kirkpatrick 2004), and one might expect some of them to have similar paternal effects. Plants go through a profound haploid stage in their life cycles, and genes involved at this stage have an inevitable effect on the fitness of the future generations. In angiosperms, seed development is known to be controlled by both maternal (Chaudhury and Berger 2001; Yadegari and Drews 2004) and paternal (Nowack et al. 2006) effect genes, expressed, respectively, in female and male gametophytes.Under haploid selection, there can be no overdominance, and thus polymorphism is much more difficult to maintain than in diploid selection models (summarized in Feldman 1971). Nevertheless, differential or antagonistic selection between sexes can lead to a new class of stable internal equilibria in the diploid systems (Owen 1953; Bodmer 1965; Mandel 1971; Kidwell et al. 1977; Reed 2007), and I make use of this property in the haploid models developed below. In the experiment by Chippindale and colleagues (Chippindale et al. 2001), ∼75% of the total fitness variation in the adult stage of Drosophila melanogaster was negatively correlated between males and females, which suggests that a substantial portion of the fruit fly expressed genome is under sexually antagonistic selection. I assume that the effect of either parent on the fitness of the individual depends on the sex of the latter, which in respect to modeling is equivalent to the assumption of differential viability between the sexes in the progeny of the same parent(s). Biological systems that satisfy the latter assumptions can be found among colonial green algae: many members of the order Volvocales are haploid except for the short zygotic stage, and during sexual reproduction, they are also dioecious and anisogametic. I return to this example in the discussion. The possibility that genes expressed in animal gametes may be under antagonistic selection between sexes has been discussed (Bernasconi et al. 2004). For example, a (hypothetical) mutation increasing the ATP production in mitochondria would be beneficial in sperm, because of the increased mobility of the latter, but neutral or detrimental in the egg, due to a higher level of oxidative damage to DNA (Zeh and Zeh 2007).My main purpose was to derive conditions for existence and stability of the internal equilibria of the model(s). I begin with a simple one-locus case, which can be analyzed explicitly, and show how these one-locus results can be extended to the case of two recombining loci with multiplicative fitness. Then, I assume an additive relation between the maternal and paternal effect parameters and study the special cases where parental effects are symmetric. 相似文献
TABLE 1
Frequencies of genotypes and fitness parameterizations in model 1| Gametes/haploids | Frequency before selection | Fitness
| ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zygote | Male | Female | ||
| (A)A | A | pfpm | 1 − α | 1 − δ |
| (A)a | 1/2 A 1/2 a | pf(1 − pm) | 1 | 1 |
| (a)A | 1/2 a 1/2 A | (1 − pf)pm | 1 − α | 1 − δ |
| (a)a | A | (1 − pf)(1 − pm) | 1 | 1 |
TABLE 2
Offspring genotypic proportions from different mating types, sorted among four phenotypic groups/combinations of maternal and paternal effects: model 2| Offspring genotypes/phenotypes
| |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Parental genotypes
| Paternal (φ = 1)
| Joint (φ = 4)
| |||||||
| Male | Female | AB | Ab | aB | Ab | AB | Ab | aB | ab |
| AB | AB | 1 | |||||||
| Ab | |||||||||
| aB | |||||||||
| ab | (1−r)/2 | r/2 | r/2 | (1−r)/2 | |||||
| Ab | AB | ||||||||
| Ab | 1 | ||||||||
| aB | r/2 | (1−r)/2 | (1−r)/2 | r/2 | |||||
| ab | |||||||||
| Offspring genotypes/phenotypes
| |||||||||
| Parental genotypes
| Maternal (φ = 2)
| None (φ = 3)
| |||||||
| Male | Female | AB | Ab | aB | Ab | AB | Ab | aB | ab |
| aB | AB | ||||||||
| Ab | r/2 | (1 − r)/2 | (1 − r)/2 | r/2 | |||||
| aB | 1 | ||||||||
| ab | |||||||||
| ab | AB | (1 − r)/2 | (1 − r)/2 | ||||||
| Ab | |||||||||
| aB | |||||||||
| ab | 1 | ||||||||
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A review of the data on the mechanisms and effects of genomic imprinting, an epigenetic phenomenon regulating the development in placentate mammals, is presented. In contrast to the majority of gene loci with biallelic expression, the expression of imprinted loci is monoallelic. In humans and mice, more than 30 imprinted loci have been identified, in which maternal or paternal alleles may either be expressed or be found in a repressed state during ontogeny. Imprinting is established during gametogenesis, and the repression of an allele of the imprinted locus is determined by methylation of the key regulatory element of this allele. Both the maternal and paternal chromosome sets are required for normal development in mammals. This is why parthenogenesis and androgenesis in these animals are impossible in nature. As a result of differential gene expression of many imprinted loci, the balance of gene activity is established, which is necessary for normal proliferation and differentiation of various cell clones in embryogenesis. Many human developmental abnormalities and syndromes are determined by defective genomic imprinting. In particular, the loss of imprints, which is followed by the occurrence of biallelic expression of some imprinted loci, may cause malignant tumors. 相似文献
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Genomic imprinting affects a subset of genes in mammals and results in a monoallelic, parental-specific expression pattern. Most of these genes are located in clusters that are regulated through the use of insulators or long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs). To distinguish the parental alleles, imprinted genes are epigenetically marked in gametes at imprinting control elements through the use of DNA methylation at the very least. Imprinted gene expression is subsequently conferred through lncRNAs, histone modifications, insulators, and higher-order chromatin structure. Such imprints are maintained after fertilization through these mechanisms despite extensive reprogramming of the mammalian genome. Genomic imprinting is an excellent model for understanding mammalian epigenetic regulation. 相似文献
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Molecular Biology - Genomic imprinting is an epigenetic phenomenon that differentiates maternal and paternal copies of genes in the genome and causes monoallelic expression depending on parental... 相似文献
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In some mammalian genes, the paternally and maternally derived alleles are expressed differently: this phenomenon is called genomic imprinting. Here we study the evolution of imprinting using multivariate quantitative genetic models to examine the feasibility of the genetic conflict hypothesis. This hypothesis explains the observed imprinting patterns as an evolutionary outcome of the conflict between the paternal and maternal alleles. We consider the expression of a zygotic gene, which codes for an embryonic growth factor affecting the amount of maternal resources obtained through the placenta. We assume that the gene produces the growth factor in two different amounts depending on its parental origin. We show that genomic imprinting evolves easily if females have some probability of multiple partners. This is in conflict with the observation that not all genes controlling placental development are imprinted and that imprinting in some genes is not conserved between mice and humans. We show however that deleterious mutations in the coding region of the gene create selection against imprinting. 相似文献
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基因组印迹与种子发育 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
胚乳介导营养物质从母体到胚的转运过程,是开花植物中发生印迹的重要部位。胚乳的发育异常会导致胚的败育。在拟南芥中已鉴定到三个FIS (fertilization-independent seed) 基因,能制止无需受精即形成种子的发育过程,即FIS1/ MEDEA、FIS2和FIS3/FIE。其中MEDEA基因是胚乳发育的主要调控基因,在胚乳中被印迹。FWA基因也在胚乳中被印迹。系统阐述了植物基因组印迹的机理以及MEA和FWA印迹机制的研究进展,并介绍了印迹发生的亲本冲突学说、印迹的方式及其它已报道的印迹基因。 相似文献
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James M. Cheverud Heather A. Lawson Gloria L. Fawcett Bing Wang L. Susan Pletscher Ashley R. Fox Taylor J. Maxwell Thomas H. Ehrich Jane P. Kenney‐Hunt Jason B. Wolf Clay F. Semenkovich 《Obesity (Silver Spring, Md.)》2011,19(1):160-170
Although the current obesity epidemic is of environmental origin, there is substantial genetic variation in individual response to an obesogenic environment. In this study, we perform a genome‐wide scan for quantitative trait loci (QTLs) affecting obesity per se, or an obese response to a high‐fat diet in mice from the LG/J by SM/J Advanced Intercross (AI) Line (Wustl:LG, SM‐G16). A total of 1,002 animals from 78 F16 full sibships were weaned at 3 weeks of age and half of each litter placed on high‐ and low‐fat diets. Animals remained on the diet until 20 weeks of age when they were necropsied and the weights of the reproductive, kidney, mesenteric, and inguinal fat depots were recorded. Effects on these phenotypes, along with total fat depot weight and carcass weight at necropsy, were mapped across the genome using 1,402 autosomal single‐nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. Haplotypes were reconstructed and additive, dominance, and imprinting genotype scores were derived every 1 cM along the F16 map. Analysis was performed using a mixed model with additive, dominance, and imprinting genotype scores, their interactions with sex, diet, and with sex‐by‐diet as fixed effects and with family and its interaction with sex, diet, and sex‐by‐diet as random effects. We discovered 95 trait‐specific QTLs mapping to 40 locations. Most QTLs had additive effects with dominance and imprinting effects occurring at two‐thirds of the loci. Nearly every locus interacted with sex and/or diet in important ways demonstrating that gene effects are primarily context dependent, changing depending on sex and/or diet. 相似文献
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Russian Journal of Genetics - Differential gene expression during development is maintained by complex regulatory epigenetic mechanisms that provide the formation of different specialized cell... 相似文献
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在配子中基因组印迹起动复合物的结合引发印迹现象,印迹起动复合物中有多种可鉴定成分,存在结合的精确时间和机制,印迹起动复合物似乎仅出现在生殖细胞系,而甲基CpG结合蛋白则能延续增殖印迹,因此基因组印迹调节着发育基因或组织特异性单等位基因的瞬时表达及大染色体结构域中基因之间的相互作用 。 相似文献
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基因印记是一种表观遗传调控机制,在二倍体哺乳动物的发育过程中,基因印记可以调控来自亲代的等位基因差异表达。非编码RNA是不编码蛋白质的RNA,它在RNA水平调控基因表达。研究表明大多数印记基因中存在长非编码RNA（长度>200nt的非编码RNA）的转录,长非编码RNA主要通过顺式的转录干扰作用来实现基因印记。同时基因印记及其相关的长非编码RNA异常表达与许多先天疾病相关,迄今已发现数十种人类遗传疾病与基因印记有关,而lncRNA引起的基因印记在疾病的发生和治疗中起着重要作用。 相似文献
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Biophysics - Complex causal relationships occur between population dynamics and a change in a population genetic structure. In our study, a simple model was used to show that the evolutionary... 相似文献
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基因组印记是由亲本来源不同而导致等位基因表达差异的一种遗传现象。基因组印记产生的原因及过程是现代遗传学的一个热点问题。哺乳动物的许多基因组印记特征都使其成为后基因组时代的一个热点生物学问题。进化的基因组印记在哺乳动物生殖、发育中起到了特定的作用。综述了基因组印记的特点、印记基因的印记机理、基因印记与克隆动物的发育、印记基因与疾病的研究进展。 相似文献
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E. S. Platonov 《Russian Journal of Developmental Biology》2005,36(4):247-255
Genomic imprinting belongs by its nature to problems of epigenetics, which studies hereditary changes in gene expression not related to defective sequences of DNA nucleotides. Epigenetic mechanisms of control, including genomic imprinting, are involved in many processes of normal and pathological development of humans and animals. Disturbances of genomic imprinting may lead to various consequences, such as formation of developmental anomalies and syndromes in humans, appearance of the large offspring syndrome and increased mortality upon cloning of mammals, and death of parthenogenetic embryos soon after implantation and beginning of organogenesis. The death of diploid parthenogenetic or androgenetic mammalian embryos is determined by the absence of expression of the genes of imprinted loci of the maternal or paternal genome, which leads to significant defects in development of tissues and organs. A review is provided of the studies aimed at search of possible normalization of misbalanced gene activity and modulation of genomic imprinting effects during parthenogenetic development in mammals.__________Translated from Ontogenez, Vol. 36, No. 4, 2005, pp. 300–309.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by Platonov. 相似文献
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长非编码RNA(lnc RNA)是长度大于200 bp的一类非编码蛋白的RNA,因其在基因组中含量巨大以及重要的生物学功能引起了学术界的广泛关注.基因组印记是一种表观遗传现象,lnc RNAs通过建立靶基因的印记而发挥重要的生物功能.基因组印记可以用来研究lnc RNAs在转录和转录后水平调控基因表达的分子机制.本文选取6个印记机制研究比较透彻的印记区域,包括Kcnq1/Cdkn1c、Igf2r/Airn、Prader-Willi(PWS)/Angelman(AS)、Snurf/Snrpn、Dlk1-Dio3和H19/Igf2.通过介绍包括基因间lnc RNAs(H19、Ipw和Meg3)、反义lnc RNAs(Kcnq1ot1、Airn、Ube3a-ATS)和增强子lnc RNAs(IG-DMR e RNAs)在内的3种类型lnc RNAs在印记调控中的作用,从而了解lnc RNAs通过顺式或(/和)反式作用多种机制调控亲本特异性靶基因的表达.了解印记基因簇中lnc RNAs的作用方式将有助于我们揭示lnc RNAs在整个基因组中的作用机制. 相似文献