Salix pentandra-alba. ♀

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Estimating root biomass in Salix viminalis × Salix schwerinii cultivar “Olof” using the electrical capacitance method

Abstract

Non‐destructive assessment of root systems is important in order to understand and optimise the potential of resource capture and allocation by the plant. We studied the relationships between electrical capacitance (EC) and the below‐ and above‐ground biomass of willows. Cuttings of Salix viminalis × Salix schwerinii cv. Olof were maintained in pots and root development was followed up using a portable capacitance meter over the course of 2.5 months. Pot observations were compared with excavation of two‐year‐old established trees. A strong significant linear relationship (R ² = 0.81, p < 0.001) was obtained between EC and root biomass (dry weight [DW]) for the pot experiment. EC also showed good correlations with stem and leaf biomass, as well as with stem height. In the excavated willow trees, there was a strong logarithmic relationship between EC and root biomass (R ² = 0.66, p < 0.001). These results suggest that EC is a good estimator of below‐ground biomass in willow and may become useful in screening varieties for differences in root biomass traits, especially in distinguishing below‐ground resource allocation at an early stage.     

QTL analyses of drought tolerance and growth for a Salix dasyclados × Salix viminalis hybrid in contrasting water regimes

Quantitative trait loci (QTL) for growth traits and water-use efficiency have been identified in two water regimes (normal and drought-treated) and for a treatment index. A tetraploid hybrid F₂ population originating from a cross between a Salix dasyclados clone (SW901290) and a Salix viminalis clone (Jorunn) was used in the study. The growth response of each individual including both above and below ground dry-matter production (i.e. shoot length, shoot diameter, aboveground and root dry weight, internode length, root dry weight/total dry weight, relative growth rate and leaf nitrogen content) was analysed in a replicated block experiment with two water treatments. A composite interval mapping approach was used to estimate number of QTL, the magnitude of the QTL and their position on genetic linkage maps. QTL specific for each treatment and for the treatment index were found, but QTL common across the treatments and the treatment index were also detected. Each QTL explained from 8% to 29% of the phenotypic variation, depending on trait and treatment. Clusters of QTL for different traits were mapped close to each other at several linkage groups, indicating either a common genetic base or tightly linked QTL. Common QTL identified between treatments and treatment index in the complex trait dry weight can be useful tools in the breeding and selection for drought stress tolerance in Salix.     

常见绿化树种绦柳(Salix matsudana cv.'Pendula')耗水特性

于2005年5-10月,利用Granier热扩散技术对北京城市绿化树种绦柳液流速率进行连续测定,并同时监测林地光合有效辐射、风速和空气温湿度等气象因子.结果表明:绦柳液流速率具有稳定的昼夜变动规律,日变化曲线呈"宽单峰型",且晴天比阴天的昼夜差异大;绦柳月平均液流速率从5月开始升高,8月达到最大值,为0.0050 cm·s-1,随后逐渐下降,10月达到最小值,为0.0013 cm·s-1;与绦柳液流速率相关性最大的环境因子是光合有效辐射和空气温度,最小的是风速;绦柳每小时的耗水量与边材面积和胸径的相关性大于与树高和树冠投影面积的相关性.     

Agaricus bisporus compost improves the potential of Salix purpurea × viminalis hybrid for copper accumulation

The aim of the study was to determine the ability of spent mushroom compost (SMC) from the production of Agaricus bisporus (A. bisporus) to stimulate the growth and efficiency of copper (Cu) accumulation by Salix purpurea × viminalis hybrid. Roots, shoots and leaves were analysed in terms of total Cu content and selected biometric parameters. Due to the absence of information regarding the physiological response of the studied plant, low molecular weight organic acids (LMWOAs), phenolic compounds and salicylic acid (SA) contents were investigated. The obtained results clearly demonstrate the effectiveness (usefulness) of SMC in promoting the growth and stimulation of Cu accumulation by the studied Salix taxon. The highest Cu content in roots and shoots was found at the 10% SMC addition (507±22 and 380±11 mg kg^?1 DW, respectively), while there was a reduction of the content in leaves and young shoots (109±8 and 124±7 mg kg^?1 DW, respectively). In terms of physiological response, lowered secretion of LMWOAs, biosynthesis of phenolic compounds and SA, as well as accumulation of soluble sugars in Salix leaves was observed with SMC addition. Simultaneously, an elevation of the total phenolic content in leaves of plants cultivated with SMC was observed, considered as antioxidant biomolecules.     

不同沙地生境下黄柳(Salix gordejevii)的根系分布和冠层结构特征

对分布于3种不同沙地生境（半固定沙丘、固定沙丘、丘间低地）黄柳灌丛的根系分布（根的数目与深度分布）和冠层结构特征（叶面积指数、平均叶倾角以及当年枝长度分布）进行了研究。半固定沙丘上的黄柳根系最发达（根系分布深,数量大）,固定沙丘的黄柳明显不及前者,而丘间低地的黄柳根系最不发达。粗根（Φ≥5mm）的分布与土壤水分和土壤容重呈显著相关性,细根（Φ<5mm）的分布与土壤容重和紧实度呈极显著相关。不同程度的根系发育导致地上部分的繁茂程度不同分布于半固定沙丘上的黄柳灌丛叶面积指数较大,当年枝平均长度较大,枝长频度分布趋于正态分布;丘间低地的黄柳灌丛叶面积指数较小,当年枝平均长度较小,枝长频度分布趋于对数正态分布;固定沙丘上灌丛的上述特征大致介于二者之间,而其当年枝长度频度符合Weibull分布。     

常见绿化树种绦柳（Salix matsudana cv. ‘Pendula＇）耗水特性

于2005年5—10月,利用Granier热扩散技术对北京城市绿化树种绦柳液流速率进行连续测定,并同时监测林地光合有效辐射、风速和空气温湿度等气象因子。结果表明：绦柳液流速率具有稳定的昼夜变动规律,日变化曲线呈“宽单峰型”,且晴天比阴天的昼夜差异大;绦柳月平均液流速率从5月开始升高,8月达到最大值,为0．0050cm&#183;s^-1,随后逐渐下降,10月达到最小值,为0．0013cm&#183;s^-1;与绦柳液流速率相关性最大的环境因子是光合有效辐射和空气温度,最小的是风速;绦柳每小时的耗水量与边材面积和胸径的相关性大于与树高和树冠投影面积的相关性。     

不同气温条件下旱柳(Salix matsudana Koidz)幼苗的水分和构型特征

利用小温棚升高气温,探讨气温升高对半干旱毛乌素沙地乡土沙生乔木如何缓冲气温升高所带来的不利影响。水分饱和亏缺和失水系数均表现出随气温升高而降低的趋势。组织密度的变化趋势恰好相反;气温长高显著影响枝茎截面积比、叶干重茎截面积比、叶面积茎截面积比、叶干重枝截面积比和叶面积枝截面积比;叶死亡率和叶周转随气温升高呈现出降低趋势,而叶出生率和叶面积的变化格局为“钟形”曲线,气温升高促进分枝产生、增加分枝长度和角度,这利于增大植冠郁闭度。     

不同沙地生境下黄柳(Salix gordejevii)种群若干数量特征的比较研究

对分布于３种不同沙地生境（半固定沙丘、固定沙丘、丘间低地）黄柳灌丛的个体形态、生长和群体数量特征进行了比较研究,同时测定了灌丛下草本层植物种类组成及频率。结果显示：分布于丘间低地的黄柳灌丛当年枝平均长度增加缓慢,短枝条的比例较高,枝长频度分布（当年枝）峰值偏左,分枝也较多,叶片短而狭,长宽比大;与之相比,分布于半固定沙丘上的灌丛当年枝平均长度增加较快,长枝条比例较高,枝长频度分布趋于正态分布,分枝     

Photosynthesis in willows (Salix × dasyclados) grown at different CO2 concentrations and fertilization levels

Summary Willows (Salix x dasyclados) were grown for 4 months in growth chambers at four nutrient and CO₂ levels, and photosynthesis measurements were made during the latter half of this period. Photosynthesis became saturated at lower light intensities at low CO₂ concentrations than at higher ones. The effect of CO₂ concentration on photosynthesis was greater at higher temperatures. The willows grown at the highest CO₂ concentration (1000 ppm) had a lower photosynthetic capacity than the others when measured at various concentrations. The effect of nutrient status on photosynthesis clearly increased with rising CO₂ concentrations. Although photosynthetic acclimation took place to a certain extent at higher CO₂ concentrations, photosynthesis still remained higher the higher the growth concentration was. At each CO₂ level photosynthesis increased contemporaneously with leaf nitrogen content, but at each fertilization level a rise in CO₂ concentration slightly increased photosynthesis and reduced the nitrogen content. The relative increase in photosynthesis achieved by a rise in CO₂ was greater than the corresponding increase in biomass growth, whereas the effect of fertilization was greater on biomass growth than on the rate of photosynthesis in the same willows.     

水淹对三峡库区岸生植物秋华柳(Salix variegata Franch.)存活和恢复生长的影响

植物在水淹后的存活和恢复生长状况可以衡量其对水淹的耐受能力,为了解三峡库区岸生植物秋华柳(Salix variegata Franch.)的水淹耐受能力,研究了长期水淹条件下秋华柳植株的存活和恢复生长状况.实验设置了3个水淹深度:对照,水淹根部(植株置于水中,仅地下部分被淹没)和水淹2m(植株置于水中,顶部距水面2m),6个水淹时间:20d,40d,60d,90d,120d和180d.研究结果表明:(1)水淹对秋华柳植株存活率的影响较小.水淹根部处理的植株在水淹180d后,存活率仍为100%,水淹2m处理的植株在水淹120d后,存活率也为100%,直到180d后,存活率才下降为0.(2)水淹后,秋华柳植株仍然可以进行恢复生长,表现出很强的恢复生长能力,但因水淹处理的不同,其恢复生长存在差异.随着水淹时间的延长,秋华柳植株出水后到开始恢复生长之前所需的时间增加,但所有水淹处理的植株在水淹结束后一周内都可以开始恢复生长.在相同水淹时间处理下,水淹处理的秋华柳植株在恢复生长期间的相对生长速率都高于对照植株,水淹40d,60d,90d后,水淹2m的秋华柳植株分别比对照植株高57.8%,143.4%,130.4%.水淹结束时,秋华柳地上部分生物量随水淹深度的不同而不同,水淹根部处理的植株几乎与对照植株无显著差异,水淹2m处理的植株都低于对照植株.水淹结束后,不同处理的秋华柳植株生长2个月后的地上部分生物量与其在水淹结束时不同处理植株地上部分生物量的变化趋势相似.本研究表明,秋华柳在长时间的水淹后具有很高的存活率,并可以进行很好的恢复生长,表现出较强的水淹耐受能力,可以考虑将其应用于三峡库区消落区的植被构建.     

常见绿化树种绦柳(Salix matsudana cv.'Pendula')耗水特性

于2005年5—10月,利用Granier热扩散技术对北京城市绿化树种绦柳液流速率进行连续测定,并同时监测林地光合有效辐射、风速和空气温湿度等气象因子。结果表明：绦柳液流速率具有稳定的昼夜变动规律,日变化曲线呈“宽单峰型”,且晴天比阴天的昼夜差异大;绦柳月平均液流速率从5月开始升高,8月达到最大值,为0.0050 cm·s^-1,随后逐渐下降,10月达到最小值,为0.0013 cm·s^-1;与绦柳液流速率相关性最大的环境因子是光合有效辐射和空气温度,最小的是风速;绦柳每小时的耗水量与边材面积和胸径的相关性大于与树高和树冠投影面积的相关性。     

按单叶叶面积估测法评估蒿柳（Salix viminalis L．）第一生长季整株叶面积

本文在蒿柳（ＳａｌｉｘｖｉｍｉｎａｌｉｓＬ．）单叶叶面积（ＡＬ）估测的基础上预测枝条水平上的叶面积．ＡＬ与叶特征度量叶长（Ｌ）、宽（Ｗ）、Ｌ２、Ｗ２、乘积（ＬＷ）,叶干重（ＷＬ）之间相关性分析表明,尽管大多数相关关系本质上为非线性,但线性（Ｙ＝ｂ×Ｘ）和非线性指数方程（Ｙ＝ｂ×Ｘｃ）均有较高的复相关系数ｒ２和较好的预测能力,且以ＬＷ最好。ＡＬ估测方程的建立必须考虑植物生长阶段、枝类型及叶片着生的相对高度的影响．椭圆和抛物面的组合能成功地拟合叶片形状,反映叶形变化和较准确的计算单叶面积．以主技基径Ｄ,枝长Ｈ,Ｄ２Ｈ以及主枝上的叶片数与基径的乘积（ＮＬ·Ｄ）为独立交量来估测主枝叶面积（Ａｐ）的非线性方程好于线性方程,但方程的估计精度因腋生枝的萌生而受影响．腋生枝数与主枝基径的乘积组合（ＮＳＳ·Ｄ）、腋生枝干重（ＷＳ）的非线性方程可用于估测胶生枝叶面积（Ａｓ）,枝水平上叶面积的估测方程都因植物生长阶段的不同而有差异．     

Characterisation and inheritance of nuclear microsatellite loci for use in population studies of the allotetraploid <Emphasis Type="Italic">Salix alba</Emphasis>–<Emphasis Type="Italic">Salix fragilis</Emphasis> complex

We present nine polymorphic di- and tri-nucleotide repeat nuclear microsatellite markers selected specifically for their use in high throughput studies concerning the dioecious allotetraploid Salix alba–Salix fragilis willow complex. These taxa and their hybrids are difficult to discriminate using morphological characters. Thus, multiplex reactions were developed for these microsatellite loci and their effectiveness to distinguish individuals, especially hybrids, and their inheritance patterns in controlled crosses were determined. All loci displayed disomic–monogenic inheritance which allowed for the genotype data to be analysed as for a diploid organism. The nine loci produced a total of 67 alleles (mean, 7.4 alleles per locus; range, 3–11 alleles) in a reference panel of 57 individuals from two germplasm collections and natural populations. Gene diversity values (as measured by the expected heterozygosity) ranged from 0.000–0.820. A total of 53 distinct multilocus genotypes were observed, and ordination analysis revealed three separate clusters corresponding to S. alba, S. fragilis and hybrids. The microsatellite loci described here will be used in population genetic studies to investigate genetic variation, gene flow, levels of hybridisation and the extent of introgression in natural populations of the S. alba–S. fragilis complex. They are also useful for clonal identification, conservation and sustainable management of germplasm collections, genetic mapping and the selection of individuals and/or certification of controlled crosses for breeding programmes.     

Leaves of Salicaceae (Salix and Populus) from Oligocene Sediments Near Tepexi de Rodríguez, Puebla, Mexico

Eleven new salicaceous taxa based on fossil leaves, seven Salix and four Populus species, are described from the Oligocene Los Ahuehuetes locality, Pie de Vaca Formation, near Tepexi de Rodríguez in Puebla, Mexico. They are characterized by the presence of typical salicoid teeth, camptodromous secondary venation, and elliptic or lanceolate shape. Morphological differences between these new fossil plants and those reported previously from the United States and elsewhere indicate that diversification among these taxa occurred early during their differentiation. Furthermore, the limited morphological similarities of the fossil and extant plants growing naturally in Mexico also indicate a high rate of evolution. Documenting the expansion of high-latitude North American taxa into lower latitudes at the time of deposition of the Pie de Vaca Formation confirms that at least some of the typical boreal taxa were part of dry tropical communities in low-latitude North America and underscores the need to reevaluate the origin of this southern vegetation.     

Soluble polyamines in Salix myrsinifolia and S. myrsinites × S. myrsinifolia plantlets exposed to increased UV-B irradiation and decreased watering

Hybridisation between certain willow species is a common feature leading to novel genotypes varying in growth rate and stress tolerance. The objective of this 4-week study was to investigate the effects of decreased watering, enhanced ultraviolet-B irradiation (UV-B_BE, 280–315 nm, 7.2 kJ m⁻² day⁻¹) and combined decreased watering and enhanced UV-B irradiation on di- and polyamines in the leaves of Salix myrsinifolia and its hybrid with S. myrsinites. Control plantlets were well-watered and exposed to ambient UV-B irradiation (UV-B_BE, 3.6 kJ m⁻² day⁻¹). HPLC analyses showed that the constitutive concentrations of soluble di- and polyamines varied markedly between S. myrsinifolia and its hybrids. The degree of responses to treatments also varied: in S. myrsinifolia, concentrations of free putrescine were clearly increased by reduced watering, while in the hybrid willow, change in putrescine was less pronounced and not significant. Results also showed that the increase in putrescine in S. myrsinifolia by reduced watering was mitigated by concurrent enhancement of UV-B irradiation. There were no direct UV-B effects on the soluble polyamines.     

Can aerial herbicide application control Grey Willow (Salix cinerea L.) and stimulate native plant recovery in New Zealand wetlands?

Grey Willow (Salix cinerea L.) poses a significant threat to wetland ecosystems in New Zealand. To manage the ecological impacts and to control further spread, cost‐effective large‐scale control methods are needed. We investigated the response of Grey Willow and dominant wetland plant groups to the aerial boom‐spray application of glyphosate at 9 L/ha and triclopyr (amine) at 18 L/ha at three New Zealand wetlands. We found glyphosate substantially reduced the dominance of tall (>2 m) Grey Willow with commensurate increases in the dominance of most native plant groups. Triclopyr (amine) application resulted in poor Grey Willow control, was not associated with increased native plant group dominance, and some native plant groups declined where triclopyr (amine) was applied. We conclude that the aerial application of glyphosate is an effective large‐scale Grey Willow control tool and could be used to initiate the restoration of native plant communities in wetlands dominated by Grey Willow. But, evidence of Grey Willow recovery after control suggests that increases in native plant dominance will be reversed as Grey Willow re‐establish. Further research is needed to determine how to maintain and enhance native plant dominance after control, and to determine how to manage Grey Willow in fen areas where the Grey Willow canopy is discontinuous and nontarget herbicide impacts can occur. The aerial boom‐spray application of triclopyr (amine) for large‐scale Grey Willow control should be discontinued as it does not provide effective control and results in negative ecological outcomes.     

Can gene flow among populations counteract the habitat loss of extremely fragile biotopes? An example from the population genetic structure in Salix daphnoides

Wild river gravel banks (RGB) represent an extremely fragile biotope that is significantly endangered by human activities due to its fragmentation over the past century. The consequences of such processes were studied using the endangered violet willow (Salix daphnoides) at the westernmost foothills of the Carpathian Mountains. We quantified population genetic characteristics for 14 ecologically and demographically characterised populations using simple sequence repeats (SSR) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. We found a significant correlation between the biotope, sex, age and genetic structure of the populations. The natural RGB populations revealed high genotypic variability when using SSR markers, in contrast to low genotypic variability of the populations of other biotopes of Cirsium wet meadows (CWM) and Ash-alder forests (AAF) that consisted of one to two clones at each site. High heterozygosity (H _obs?=?0.428–0.532) was similar across all natural (RGB) populations; however, these populations were deficient in heterozygotes (F _IS/ρ _IS?>?0). All RGB populations exhibited moderate to very significant genetic differentiation for microsatellites, despite the fact that the AFLP data showed strong differentiation only between CWM and AAF populations. Division into clusters by Structure confirmed consistent geographic groups for the RGB populations. According to our results, the strong decrease in previously continuous and large natural habitats for the violet willow is slightly counterbalanced by among-population gene flow. However, the survival of natural populations is tightly linked to the presence of river gravel banks and bars. Strict protection of this habitat is therefore essential for the conservation of the species.     

Understanding the spectacular failure of DNA barcoding in willows (Salix): Does this result from a trans‐specific selective sweep?

Willows (Salix: Salicaceae) form a major ecological component of Holarctic floras and consequently are an obvious target for a DNA‐based identification system. We surveyed two to seven plastid genome regions (~3.8 kb; ~3% of the genome) from 71 Salix species across all five subgenera, to assess their performance as DNA barcode markers. Although Salix has a relatively high level of interspecific hybridization, this may not sufficiently explain the near complete failure of barcoding that we observed: only one species had a unique barcode. We recovered 39 unique haplotypes, from more than 500 specimens, that could be partitioned into six major haplotype groups. A unique variant of group I (haplotype 1*) was shared by 53 species in three of five Salix subgenera. This unusual pattern of haplotype sharing across infrageneric taxa is suggestive of either a massive nonrandom coalescence failure (incomplete lineage sorting), or of repeated plastid capture events, possibly including a historical selective sweep of haplotype 1* across taxonomic sections. The former is unlikely as molecular dating indicates that haplotype 1* originated recently and is nested in the oldest major haplotype group in the genus. Further, we detected significant non‐neutrality in the frequency spectrum of mutations in group I, but not outside group I, and demonstrated a striking absence of geographical (isolation by distance) effects in the haplotype distributions of this group. The most likely explanation for the patterns we observed involves recent repeated plastid capture events, aided by widespread hybridization and long‐range seed dispersal, but primarily propelled by one or more trans‐species selective sweeps.     

Do sexual dimorphisms in reproductive allocation and new shoot biomass increase with an increase of altitude? A case of the shrub willow Salix reinii (Salicaceae)

Based on the general tendency for females of dioecious plants to pay higher reproductive cost than males, it has been predicted that females should have much more reduced reproductive outputs and diminished vegetative production than males in energy-limited habitats. Nevertheless, this prediction has rarely been directly investigated. We investigated altitudinal changes in reproductive biomass and shoot production, normalized by plant size, for females and males of a shrub willow, Salix reinii, on Mt. Hakkoda, northeast Japan. Females maintained higher reproductive biomass than males at all altitudes; however, reproductive allocation for both sexes tended to decrease at a similar rate with an increase in altitude. Moreover, females vegetatively produced at the same rate as males at all altitudes. These findings suggest that females have a mechanism to compensate for the extra investment in reproduction irrespective of a changing environment. Shoot production did not change with altitude, suggesting that S. reinii gave priority to vegetative investment at the cost of reproductive output at higher altitudes. Inconsistent with general predictions, females did not respond more sensitively than males to severe environmental conditions in either reproductive allocation or shoot production, despite much higher resource investment in reproduction.