Comparative locomotion and habitat use of six monkeys in the Tai Forest,Ivory Coast

The relationships between locomotion, body size, and habitat use in six sympatric Old World monkeys are examined to test whether the associations found are consistent with those demonstrated in previous studies (Fleagle and Mittermeier [1980] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 52:301–314; Gebo and Chapman [1995] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 97:49–76). Colobus polykomos, C. badius, C. verus, Cercopithecus diana, C. campbelli, and Cercocebus atys were studied for 14 months in the Ivory Coast's Tai Forest. Analyses reveal that (1) larger monkeys tend to frequent those strata containing the greatest densities of large supports while smaller monkeys are more diverse in their canopy use; (2) high frequencies of leaping are not necessarily confined to the understory, and understory specialists are not necessarily frequent leapers; (3) body size does not consistently predict leaping or climbing frequencies; (4) in general, climbing is more frequent during foraging and leaping is more common during travel; (5) larger supports are used during travel while smaller supports are used during foraging; and (6) larger monkeys do not always use larger supports than do smaller monkeys. Some of the factors contributing to the manner that locomotion, body size, and habitat use are related in cercopithecid monkeys are discussed. Am J Phys Anthropol 105:493–510, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Posture and support use of old world monkeys (Cercopithecidae): The influence of foraging strategies,activity patterns,and the spatial distribution of preferred food items

A common objective in field studies of positional behavior is to establish functional links between locomotion, body size, habitat use, foraging strategies, and maintenance activities. In contrast, there has been relatively little effort to examine posture in a similar, comparative context. Although various studies have shown that particular postures are employed in specific contexts, the theory which could provide the basis for understanding posture on a more general level has not been explicitly stated. This is particularly true for primates lacking specializations such as prehensile tails, claws for clinging, or adaptations for forelimb suspension. Consequently, there are few a priori reasons for predicting postural differences among generalized arboreal quadrupeds. Six sympatric cercopithecid monkeys were studied for 14 months in the Ivory Coast's Tai Forest to determine if more general relationships do exist between posture and other aspects of behavior. The results demonstrate that the postural diversity with these primates can, to varying degrees, be understood within the context of differences in the spatial distribution of preferred food items, activity patterns, support use, and foraging strategies. Am. J. Primatol. 46:229–250, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Census,habitat preference,and polyspecific associations of six monkeys in the Lomako Forest,Zaire

This paper reports preliminary data on a number of poorly known cercopithecids inhabiting the Lomako Forest, Zaire. Data include those on density, biomass, group size, the relationship between group type (mono vs. polyspecific) and forest type (mixed primary, secondary, monodominant primary, and swamp), and vertical stratification. Species examined are Colobus angolensis, Cercocebus aterrimus, Cercopithecus wolfi, Cercopithecus ascanius, Cercopithecus neglectus, and Allenopithecus nigroviridis. The density and biomass for the Lomako Forest anthropoids (excluding Cercopithecus neglectus and A. nigroviridis) are 165 ind/km² and 1,034 kg/km², respectively. Cercopithecus wolfi and Colobus angolensis are found in group sizes similar to those reported from other sites while Cercopithecus ascanius, Cercocebus aterrimus, and A. nigroviridis display group sizes unique to the Lomako. While Colobus angolensis, Cercocebus aterrimus, Cercopithecus ascanius and Cercopithecus wolfi were found, to varying extents, in all four forest types, Cercopithecus neglectus and A. nigroviridis inhabited only swamp forest. The different species sort out along vertical continua both within and between the four forest types. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Sex and age differences in the diet and ingestive behaviors of sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys) in the Tai Forest, Ivory Coast

Members of the Cercocebus-Mandrillus clade are united by several morphological features, including expanded premolars which are argued to be associated with a preponderance of hard objects in the diet. We test the association between premolar expansion and hard object feeding by examining how different dental regions are used during food processing. We examined the diet and oral processing activities of sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys) in the Ivory Coast's Tai forest from August 2008 to September 2009. In addition to compiling diet profiles, we recorded the frequency that individuals performed four activities: 1) incising, 2) canine puncturing/scraping, 3) postcanine crushing (i.e., isometric biting), and 4) routine mastication (chewing cycles). Sooty mangabeys have a relatively narrow diet that consists largely of nuts/seeds, fruits, and invertebrates. While there are age and sex differences in diet, the most frequently consumed foods are similar across age and sex classes. The most frequently consumed foods are seeds of Sacoglottis gabonensis which are the hardest items in the sooty mangabey diet. Patterns of ingestive behavior vary with food type, but adults and nonadults (excluding infants dependent on mothers) of both sexes process similar foods. Premolar expansion in Cercocebus atys is associated with powerful crushing of hard objects of specific size and durophagy is a constant feature of sooty mangabey feeding ecology throughout ontogeny.     

Border and ecotone detection by vegetation composition along forest‐savanna transects in Ivory Coast

Abstract. Question: How do properties of different vegetation components vary along ecotones of semi‐deciduous forest islands, and can the depth of edge influence (DEI) of the components be detected using a novel combination of analyses? Location: Comoé National Park (CNP), NE Ivory Coast. Methods: Along eight transects at semi‐deciduous forest islands tree individuals > 20 cm DBH were mapped. At one transect, tree and shrub individuals down to 1 cm DBH were measured and cover of species was estimated. Split moving window dissimilarity analysis (SMWDA) and moving window regression analysis (MWRA) were combined to detect statistical significance of borders in multivariate vegetation data along continuous transects, to determine the width of associated ecotones, and, thus, the DEI towards the forest interior. Results: For trees > 20 cm DBH, a distinct boundary formation was detected, dominated by the semi‐fire resistant tree species Anogeissus leiocarpus. The median of DEI towards the forest interior was 55 m. Ecotone detection with all species present revealed an interlocked sequence of ecotones for grasses, herbs, woody climbers, shrubs and trees, with each of these ecotones being narrower than the overall ecotone. DEI ranged from 10 m for grasses up to 120 m for trees and shrubs. Conclusions: The coherent set of analyses applied proved to be an objective method for detecting borders and the width of associated ecotones. The patterns found may be explained by successional processes at the forest‐savanna border. The DEI measured for the forest islands in the nearly undisturbed semi‐natural system of the CNP is of relevance to concepts of core‐area analysis and the protection of forest interior species in semi‐deciduous forests in tropical West Africa.     

Effect of habitat structure on positional behavior and support use in three species of lemur

This study compares locomotor and postural behavior and substrate use of three species of lemur, the diademed sifaka (Propithecus diadema edwardsi), the brown lemur (Eulemur fulvus rufus), and the red-bellied lemur (Eulemur rubriventer) at two different localities within Ranomafana National Park. The object of the study is to see if there are quantitative differences in the behavior of the lemurs or their choice of substrates in forests that have different structural attributes. Analysis of the physical characteristics of the habitat demonstrates that compared to the Talatakely area, the forest at Vatoharanana has a higher proportion of larger, taller trees. The behavior of the lemurs also differs in the two areas: all species leap less and climb and move quadrupedally more at Vatoharanana. All species use small size supports less frequently at Vatoharanana, choosing insted medium size supports (all three species) or tiny supports (Propithecus andE. fulvus) found in tree crowns and terminal branches. The lemurs prefer (i.e. use more often than would be expected based on abundance) large trees at both sites. At Vatoharanana however, they are more frequently observed higher in trees and in taller trees with greater trunk breadth. The differences in locomotor behavior are in part due to the fact that at Vatoharanana, more bouts are collected during feeding and foraging than during travel. The relationship between this difference in activity pattern and the structural differerences in the two forests, however, is not clear. This study points out the need for longer term field studies of positional behavior and substrate use that incorporate the variety of forest types the subject species inhabit.     

Kinematics of the cercopithecine foot on arboreal and terrestrial substrates with implications for the interpretation of hominid terrestrial adaptations

The stereotyped characterizations of quadrupedal foot postures were tested by examining the kinematics of the cercopithecine foot on arboreal and terrestrial supports. Strictly arboreal species were compared with semi-terrestrial species for Cercopithecus, Cercocebus, Lophocebus, and Papio, in semi-natural or experimental settings. Results indicate that the kinematics of the cercopithecine arboreal quadruped differ in degree from stereotypical expectations for an arboreal quadruped. The relatively extended, adducted limb movements of the cercopithecines and the emphasis on the central digit as the functional axis of the foot suggest convergence with terrestrial mammalian cursors, and differ from the platyrrhine or colobine arboreal quadruped. The characteristics of the quadrupedal terrestrial primate foot contrast with the very unique pattern seen in the hominid foot. These contrasts provide a new perspective from which to interpret the hominid adaptation, in which the functional axis has remained fixed between the first and second digits. This pattern differs from virtually all other terrestrial mammals. The influence of bipedalism on this functional pattern is examined.     

Comparative locomotor behavior of chimpanzees and bonobos: The influence of morphology on locomotion

Results from a 10 month study of adult male and female bonobos (Pan paniscus) in the Lomako Forest, Zaire, and those from a 7 month study of adult male and female chimpanzees in the Tai Forest, Ivory Coast (Pan troglodytes verus), were compared in order to determine whether there are species differences in locomotor behavior and substrate use and, if so, whether these differences support predictions made on the basis of interspecific morphological differences. Results indicate that bonobos are more arboreal than chimpanzees and that male bonobos are more suspensory than their chimpanzee counterpart. This would be predicted on the basis of male bonobo's longer and more narrow scapula. This particular finding is contrary to the prediction that the bonobo is a “scaled reduced version of a chimpanzee” with little or no positional behavior difference as had been suggested. This study provides the behavioral data necessary to untangle contradictory interpretations of the morphological differences between chimpanzees and bonobos, and raises a previously discussed (Fleagle: Size and Scaling in Primate Biology, pp. 1–19, 1985) but frequently overlooked point–that isometry in allometric studies does not necessarily equate with behavioral equivalence. Several researchers have demonstrated that bonobos and chimpanzees follow the same scaling trends for many features, and are in some sense functionally equivalent, since they manage to feed and reproduce. However, as reflected in their morphologies, they do so through different types and frequencies of locomotor behaviors. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

First results on the feeding ecology of sympatric shrews (Insectivora: Soricidae) in the Tai National Park,Ivory Coast

The feeding ecology of a multi-species community of shrews inhabiting secondary forest and cacao-coffee plantations in the Tai National Park (Ivory Coast) was investigated. A total of 553 shrews were captured and 194 alimentary tracts were examined. Ten species were found, includingSylvisorex megalura and nine species ofCrocidura, forming a series with respect to body size. New ecological data on these little known African species are presented. All species of shrews ate a wide diversity of arthropods, with Coleoptera, Araneae, Formicidae and Diplopoda making the largest dietary contributions. Lumbricidae were eaten by two species.C. obscurior had an exceptionally long intestine for its size but there was no evidence of dietary specialisation in this or other shrew species. All species investigated ate predominantly small prey and there was no correlation between size of prey items consumed and body mass of shrew species. There was little evidence of resource partitioning amongst the shrews, despite differences in body size.     

Ranging Behavior of Two Species of Guenons (Cercopithecus lhoesti and C. mitis doggetti) in the Nyungwe Forest Reserve,Rwanda

I studied the ranging behavior of one group of L'Hoest's monkeys (Cercopithecus lhoesti) and one group of blue monkeys (C. mitis doggetti) in the Nyungwe Forest Reserve, Rwanda. This study is the first to examine the ranging behavior of the more terrestrial L'Hoest's monkeys. Fruits composed 47% of blue monkey diet and 24% of the L'Hoest's monkey diet; terrestrial herbaceous vegetation composed 35% of the diet of the latter. While overall abundance of fruit resources in the home range and overall proportion of fruit in the diet were not related to ranging behavior in either group, temporal and spatial availability of specific fruit species was related. Measures of ranging behavior indicated a more concentrated ranging pattern when fruit resources were scarce and dietary diversity increased and when fruit resources were abundant and the groups focused on a few abundant fruit species. Current hypotheses concerning primate ranging behavior suggest that frugivorous species are expected to have greater day ranges and larger home ranges than folivorous species, and invertebrate consumption is expected to produce a more wide-ranging pattern. However, the L'Hoest's monkey group, which was more folivorous and consumed fewer invertebrates, traveled greater daily distances, had a more diverse and longer ranging pattern, and had larger home range areas than the blue monkey group in every month of the study. Both species were highly selective of forest habitats; L'Hoest's monkeys used secondary forest, while blue monkeys preferred primary forest.     

Detection of Mycobacterium ulcerans DNA in the Environment,Ivory Coast

Background

Ivory Coast is a West African country with the highest reported cases of Buruli ulcer, a disabling subcutaneous infection due to Mycobacterium ulcerans. However, the prevalence of environmental M. ulcerans is poorly known in this country.

Methods

We collected 496 environmental specimens consisting of soil (n = 100), stagnant water (n = 200), plants (n = 100) and animal feces (n = 96) in Ivory Coast over five months in the dry and wet seasons in regions which are free of Buruli ulcer (control group A; 250 specimens) and in regions where the Buruli ulcer is endemic (group B; 246 specimens). After appropriate total DNA extraction incorporating an internal control, the M. ulcerans IS2404 and KR-B gene were amplified by real-time PCR in samples. In parallel, a calibration curve was done for M. ulcerans Agy99 IS2404 and KR-B gene.

Results

Of 460 samples free of PCR inhibition, a positive real-time PCR detection of insertion sequence IS2404 and KR-B gene was observed in 1/230 specimens in control group A versus 9/230 specimens in group B (P = 0.02; Fisher exact test). Positive specimens comprised seven stagnant water specimens, two feces specimens confirmed to be of Thryonomys swinderianus (agouti) origin by real-time PCR of the cytb gene; and one soil specimen. Extrapolation from the calibration curves indicated low inoculums ranging from 1 to 10² mycobacteria/mL.

Conclusion

This study confirms the presence of M. ulcerans in the watery environment surrounding patients with Buruli ulcer in Ivory Coast. It suggests that the agouti, which is in close contacts with populations, could play a role in the environmental cycle of M. ulcerans, as previously suggested for the closely related possums in Australia.     

Frequent insectivory by two guenons (Cercopithecus lhoesti and Cercopithecus mitis) in the Kalinzu Forest, Uganda

I investigated the feeding ecology of lHoests monkeys (Cercopithecus lhoesti) and blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis) in the Kalinzu Forest, Uganda. Although forest guenons are generally thought to be frugivores or folivores, these two guenons spent a large proportion of their time feeding on invertebrates. The lHoests monkey and the blue monkey spent as much as 66 and 50% of their time on insectivory, respectively. These proportions of time spent on invertebrate feeding are higher than those reported elsewhere for forest guenons. LHoests monkeys mainly utilized the area near the ground for invertebrate feeding, while blue monkeys utilized the area around 20 m above the ground. It seemed that guenons have an ability to change their diet according to the environment.     

Caryedon serratus and its parasitoids in the Savanna around Lamto,Ivory Coast

In the savanna around Lamto,Caryedon serratus develops, in the beginning of the dry season, on maturing seeds ofPiliostigma thonningii (Caesalpinioideae). A 2^nd generation, and sometimes a 3^nd one, develops in dry seeds. There is no pupal diapause during the rainy season and adults seems to spend this period in a semi-lethargic state. The parasitoid complex ofC. serratus is a chalcid-dominated one. It includes 5 species: one oophagous (Uscana caryedoni) and 4 larvo-nymphal parasitoids. Three species are regular (Anisopteromalus caryedophagus, Bracon sp. andU. caryedoni), the others are sporadic species (Proconura serratocida, Eurytoma caryedocida). Biological data are given for each species.      

Sex differences in adult chimpanzee positional behavior: The influence of body size on locomotion and posture

Focal animal instantaneous sampling of adult male and female chimpanzee positional behavior was conducted during a 7-month study in the Tai Forest, Ivory Coast, in order to determine whether there are sex differences in the locomotion, posture, substrate use, and height preference of sexually dimorphic adult chimpanzees, and if so, whether these differences support predictions based on body size differences. Results indicate that as predicted, adult male and female chimpanzees differ in their arboreal locomotor behavior, with the larger males using less quadrupedalism and more climbing, scrambling, and aided bipedalism than females during feeding locomotion. There is a sex difference in height preference as well, with female chimpanzees consistently using more arboreal behavior than males, primarily during resting. Although it has been previously demonstrated that separate primate species of differing body size differ in locomotor and postural activities (Fleagle and Mittermeier, 1980; Crompton, 1984), this study clearly demonstrates that body size differences within a species can also be correlated with differences in locomotor behavior. These findings may influence how we interpret sex differences in body size of extinct species. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Cyanobacteria and Cyanobacterial Lichens from Inselbergs of the Ivory Coast,Africa

This study focuses on the saxicolous lichens and cyanobacteria of the open, exposed rock surface of inselbergs. Twenty-three species of cyanobacteria and 17 cyanobacterial lichen species (“cyanolichens”) from several inselbergs and other rocky outcrops of three major climatic regions, savanna, transition zone and rain forest, are reported from the Ivory Coast. Inselbergs are isolated and frequently mountains consisting of Precambrian granites or gneisses that abruptly rise from the surrounding plains. Cyanobacteria were found to be the dominating organisms on all rock surfaces. The lichens found mainly belong to the family Peltulaceae and a few were present from the family Lichinaceae. Nine species of the cyanolichens and most of the cyanobacteria are new for the Ivory Coast. A gradient in total species number (cyanolichens and cyanobacteria) occurs from the savanna to the rain forest, with a decrease in species number towards the rain forest. Saxicolous cyanobacterial lichens reached a higher species number in the savanna type ecosystem (11) than on inselbergs in the rain forest (7). The cyanolichens and cyanobacteria found are characteristic for larger, light-exposed rock surfaces and species like P. congregate, P. lingulata, P. tortuosa and P. umbilicata preferentially occur on the granite or sandstone of inselbergs.