Dyslipidaemia and inflammatory markers as the risk predictors for cardiovascular disease in newly diagnosed premenopausal hypothyroid women

BackgroundHypothyroidism can predispose systolic and diastolic cardiac dysfunction, increased peripheral vascular resistance, endothelial dysfunction, altered coagulopathy, and dyslipidemia resulting in atherosclerosis. Thyroid hormones can influence homocysteine metabolism by regulating the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (M THR). So, this study aimed to compare the markers homocysteine, high sensitive C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), and Atherogenic Indices (AI) between newly diagnosed hypothyroid and euthyroid premenopausal women.Methods80 Female patients between 20 and 45 years were enrolled in this study and were equally divided into cases and controls group. Laboratory tests included: i) Serum T3, T4, TSH was measured using electrochemiluminescence, ii) lipid profile, homocysteine, and hs-CRP were measured for all the participants. Atherogenic indices: Castelli risk indices I&II, Atherogenic coefficient (AEC), and Atherogenic Index of Plasma (AIP) were calculated using formulas. A comparison between the study groups was made by using the Independent t-test and Mann-Whitney U test. p-value < 0.05 was considered significant.ResultsThe hypothyroid group had significantly higher levels of homocysteine (p= 0.014), and hs-CRP (hs-CRP> 3.0 mg/L, 70% of participants have intermediate to high risk for a cardiovascular event) and elevated BMI compared to participants in the euthyroid group. Atherogenic indices (p< 0.001) was significantly increased in the hypothyroid participants'' group. TC, TG , and LDL were significantly elevated in the hypothyroid group but did not show any association with systolic and diastolic blood pressure.ConclusionsPremenopausal women with hypothyroidism have a greater predisposition for cardiovascular disease compared to euthyroid     

Luminal (Her2 negative) prognostic index and survival of breast cancer patients

PurposeThe group of luminal (Her2 negative) is distinguished from other subtypes of breast cancer. We aimed to produce a prognostic index specific for luminal (Her2 negative) subtype breast cancer that could assist clinical treatment.MethodsThe test set comprised 406 consecutive luminal (Her2 negative) breast cancer patients. The relationship of 11 clinicopathologic factors including survivin with the 5-year disease-free survival was analyzed.ResultsIn univariate analysis, TNM stage, surgery, tumor size, lymph node involvement, and survivin expression were prognostic factors. In multivariate analysis, tumor size [HR (95% CI): 1.98 (1.12–3.49), p = 0.019], the number of lymph node metastasis [HR (95% CI): 1.75 (1.33–2.29), p < 0.0001] and the expression of progesterone receptor [HR (95% CI): 0.58 (0.36–0.95), p = 0.029] can independently predict prognosis. Prognostic index (PI) was calculated as 0.68 × tumor size + 0.56 × the number of lymph node metastasis − 0.54 × PR. According to the PI, patients were categorized into three groups: low, middle, and high risk group with the 5-year disease-free survival rates of 91.91%, 84.97% and 70.47%, respectively (P < 0.001). In the validation set, the luminal prognostic index (LPI) remained significant.ConclusionThe LPI may be a useful tool for evaluating the outcome of patients with luminal (Her-2 negative) breast cancer.     

Impact of cardiovascular risk factors on oxidative stress and DNA damage in a high risk Mediterranean population

Abstract

The impact of classic cardiovascular risk factors on oxidative stress status in a high-risk cardiovascular Mediterranean population of 527 subjects was estimated. Oxidative stress markers (malondialdehyde, 8-oxo-7′8′-dihydro-2′-deoxyguanosine, oxidized/reduced glutathione ratio) together with the activity of antioxidant enzyme triad (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase) were analysed in circulating mononuclear blood cells. Malondialdehyde, oxidized glutathione and the ratio of oxidized to reduced glutathione were significantly higher while catalase and glutathione peroxidase activities were significantly lower in high cardiovascular risk participants than in controls. Statistically significant differences were obtained after additional multivariate control for sex, age, obesity, diabetes, lipids and medications. Among the main cardiovascular risk factors, hypertension was the strongest determinant of oxidative stress in high risk subjects studied at a primary prevention stage.     

Risk factors for breast cancer in the breast cancer risk model study of Guam and Saipan

BackgroundChamorro Pacific Islanders in the Mariana Islands have breast cancer incidence rates similar to, but mortality rates higher than, those of U.S. women. As breast cancer risk factors of women of the Mariana Islands may be unique because of ethnic and cultural differences, we studied established and suspected risk factors for breast cancer in this unstudied population.MethodsFrom 2010–2013, we conducted retrospective case-control study of female breast cancer (104 cases and 185 controls) among women in the Mariana Islands. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated for each of various lifestyle-related factors from logistic regression of breast cancer, in all women and in pre- and postmenopausal women separately. Tests for interaction of risk factors with ethnicity were based on the Wald statistics for cross-product terms.ResultsOf the medical and reproductive factors considered — age at menarche, breastfeeding, number of live births, age at first live birth, hormone use, and menopause — only age at first live birth was confirmed. Age at first live birth, among parous women, was higher among cases (mean 24.9 years) than controls (mean 23.2 years); with increased breast cancer risk (OR = 2.53; 95% CI, 1.04–6.19 for age ≥ 30y compared to <20y, P for trend = 0.01). Of the lifestyle factors —body mass index, waist circumference, physical activity, alcohol and betel-nut intake, and education — only waist circumference (OR = 1.65; 95% CI 0.87–3.14 for the highest tertile group compared to the lowest, P for trend = 0.04) was significantly associated with breast cancer risk and only in Filipino women. The association with many other established risk factors, such as BMI, hormone use and physical activity, were in the expected direction but were not significant. Associations for family history of breast cancer and alcohol intake were not evidentConclusionsThe results provide a basis for cancer prevention guidance for women in the Mariana Islands.     

Prospective breast cancer risk factors prediction in Saudi women

Women's health is affected by breast cancer worldwide and Saudi Arabia (SA) is no exception. Malignancy has enormous consequences for social, psychological and public health. The aim of this study was to examine the risk factors for Saudi women from breast cancer using logistic regression models. In 135 patient cases for different stages of breast cancer was used to study case management, 270 healthy women from King Abd Alla Medical City, Mecca, SA were taken to predict the probability of women developing breast cancer, logistic regression was analyzed taking factors such as age, marital status, family history, parity, age at first full-term pregnancy, menopausal status, body mass index (BMI) and breast feeding. The logistic regression model showed that there are important risk factors (age, marital status, family history, parity, age at first full-term pregnancy, menopausal status, body mass index, and breast feeding) in development of breast cancer. Fewer cases were observed in unmarried women, age ≤30, BMI ≤20. In contrast, more cases were found with women age 41–50 married, BMI > 30, a smaller number of children, not breast feeding, age of first pregnancy ≥30, menopausal status age at 46–50. Based on our data there is role of risk factors in developing breast cancer, less BMI, the increase number of children, breast feeding, which are playing as protective factor for breast cancer.     

Number of teeth and selected cardiovascular risk factors among elderly people

doi:10.1111/j.1741‐2358.2009.00328.x
Number of teeth and selected cardiovascular risk factors among elderly people Objective: To produce evidence on an association between the number of teeth and selected cardiovascular risk factors among an elderly population. Materials and methods: The study population comprised of 523 community‐living elderly people who participated in the population‐based Kuopio 75+ study. The data for each subject were collected using a structured clinical health examination, an interview and laboratory tests. Linear regression models were used to estimate adjusted mean values and confidence limits. Results: Edentulous persons and persons with a small number of teeth had lower serum HDL cholesterol and higher triglyceride, leucocyte and blood glucose levels and a higher body mass index (BMI) compared with subjects to a large number of teeth. Conclusion: The study showed that, in the Finnish home‐dwelling population aged 75 years or older, those with a large number of teeth were less likely to have cardiovascular risk factors such as a low serum HDL cholesterol level, a high triglyceride level and a high BMI than did subjects with a small number of teeth or who were edentulous.     

Physical activity and the risk of breast cancer among Nigerian women

BackgroundAlthough physical activity has been associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer risk in high income countries (HIC), its role has not been widely studied in sub-Saharan Africa. Our aim was to investigate the association between physical activity (PA) and the risk of breast cancer in Nigeria.MethodsWe conducted a hospital-based case-control study involving participants from five hospitals in Lagos and Abuja. Women were interviewed in-person between October 2016 and May 2017 using a semi-structured questionnaire. Total PA was estimated by summing occupational, household, transport and leisure PA scores. PA was summarised as metabolic equivalents (MET) hours per week (MET-hr/wk). The putative association between breast cancer incidence and PA was analysed using multivariable logistic regression.Results379 histologically confirmed breast cancer cases and 403 controls took part. Compared to women in the lowest categories, women in the upper middle category of total PA(adjusted OR-AOR 0.44, 95% CI: 0.27, 0.78),uppermost categories of total non-vigorous PA (AOR 0.26, 95%CI:0.09,0.75), household PA(AOR 0.0.38, 95% CI: 0.20, 0.71) and occupational PA (AOR 0.64, 95% 0.40, 1.02) had a reduced risk of breast cancer following adjustment for relevant confounders. Transport and leisure PA were not significantly associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer.ConclusionThe total effect of various PA related to regular activities of Nigerian women was associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer. PA especially at household and occupational environments should be promoted as part of breast cancer prevention strategy in Nigeria.     

Specific impact of cardiovascular risk factors on coronary microcirculation in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism

BackgroundAlthough thyroid hormones have significant effect on cardiovascular system, the impact of subtle thyroid dysfunction such as subclinical hypothyroidism (SCH) remains to be determined. We investigated coronary flow reserve (CFR) in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism.MethodsThirty two subjects with SCH and eighteen control subjects with normal serum thyroid hormones and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels were included in the study. TSH, free thyroxine, free triiodothyronine, glucose, insulin, HbA1c, cholesterol, triglyceride and plasma levels of C-reactive protein were measured. Coronary diastolic peak flow velocities in left anterior descending coronary artery were measured at baseline and after adenosine infusion. CFR was calculated as the ratio of hyperemic to baseline diastolic peak velocity.ResultsCFR values were not significantly different between the two groups (SCH 2.76±0.35 vs controls 2.76±0.42). There was a significant correlation of CFR with waist to hip ratio, hypertension, smoking habits, markers of glucose status (glucose level, HbA1c, insulin level, HOMA IR), cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol and triglyceride levels in SCH group, whereas only cholesterol level showed significant correlation with CFR in controls. There was no correlation between CFR and thyroid hormones.ConclusionsWe concluded that there is a different impact of cardiovascular risk factors on CFR in SCH patients compared to healthy control and that these two groups behave differently in the same circumstances under the same risk factors. The basis for this difference could be that the altered thyroid axis "set point" changes the sensitivity of the microvasculature in patients with SCH to known risk factors.     

Risk factors for breast cancer and their association with molecular subtypes in a population of Northeast Brazil

BackgroundThe risk factors for breast cancer (BC) among women in Brazilian populations are poorly understood. To date, few Brazilian studies have addressed the potential association between risk factors and molecular BC subtypes. This case-control study aimed to identify risk factors for BC in a population of Northeast Brazil.MethodsData from 313 patients with invasive BC and 321 healthy controls were obtained from medical records from two cancer treatment centres and personal interviews. Of the 313 BC patients, 224 (71.6%) had reached menopause. The following distribution of subtypes was found among 301 patients: (1) Luminal A: 54 (17.9%); (2) Luminal B: 175 (58.1%); (3) HER2/neu: 29 (9.7%); and (4) triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC): 43 (14.3%). Odds ratios (ORs) and confidence intervals (CIs) were determined using regression analysis.ResultsRegression modelling indicated that family history, obesity (≥ 30.0 kg/m²), alcohol consumption and contraceptive use increased the overall risk of BC 1.78 (95% CI: 1.22–2.59), 1.69 (95% CI: 1.08–2.63), 2.21 (95% CI: 1.44–3.39) and 2.99 (95% CI: 2.09–4.28) times, respectively. After stratification for menopausal status, alcohol consumption increased the risk of BC 4.15 (95% CI: 2.13–8.11) times, and obesity, as a single variable, increased the risk of BC 2.02 (95% CI: 1.22–3.37) times, only among postmenopausal women. In a case-control analysis, the risk of TNBC and Luminal B breast cancer were 4.06 (95% CI: 1.58–10.42) and 1.87 times (95% CI: 1.13–3.11) higher, respectively, in obese women than in non-obese women. Furthermore, alcohol consumption increased the risk of Luminal A and B subtypes 7.08 (3.40–14.73) and 1.77 (1.07–2.92) times, respectively.ConclusionFamily history, contraceptive use, obesity and alcohol consumption increased the risk of BC. Obesity and alcohol consumption differentially increased risk of TNBC and Luminal molecular subtypes.     

Reproductive factors and breast cancer risk in Palestine: A case control study

BackgroundEarly age at menarche, late age at menopause, and late age at first full-term pregnancy are linked to a modest increase in the risk of developing breast cancer (breast ca). This study aims to investigate the reproductive determinants of breast cancer among women in the West Bank of Palestine.A structured questionnaire was used to collect data in a case-control study (237 registered cases and 237 controls). A multivariate analysis model was used to adjust for the association between women’s reproductive factors and breast ca risk. This study was approved by Al Quds University Ethical Research Committee and the Ministry of Health research unit.ResultsIn the multivariate analysis, menarche after 13 years of age, use of oral contraceptives for more than two months, and hormonal contraceptives use significantly doubled the risk for breast ca (Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) = 2.03, 95 % CI: 1.21–4.37, p < 0.011 and AOR = 2.2, 95 % CI: 1.24–4.01, p = 0.008, respectively). Women who used hormone replacement therapy (HRT) were significantly associated with higher odds (5 folds) of having breast ca versus those who did not use them (AOR 5.02, 95 % CI: 1.93–13.06, p = 0.001). Similarly, nulliparous women showed 6 times the odds of breast ca compared with women with one or more children (p = 0.005). Also, parental consanguinity marriage (AOR 2.59, 95 % CI: 1.53–4.36, p = 0.001) and positive family history (AOR 3.88, 95 % CI: 2.19–6.87, p = 0.001) of the condition can be strong determinants for breast ca in this study.ConclusionThis study provides clear evidence that the use of reproductive hormones, whether as a birth control tool or for therapeutic purposes, must be rationalized worldwide and in Palestine in particular.     

Reproductive factors and breast cancer risk among BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation carriers: Results from ten studies

Although reproductive factors are among the most well-established risk factors for breast cancer in the general population, it is still a matter for debate whether these factors act as risk modifiers among BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation carriers. This meta-analysis is the first to be performed to determine the relationship between reproductive factors and breast cancer risk among BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. We searched the PubMed database up to February 2013. A total of ten studies met the inclusion criteria. The results showed that the reproductive factors may be associated with breast cancer risk only among BRCA1 mutation carriers. No association was found between parity and breast cancer risk. Compared with women at the youngest age in the first-birth category, women in the oldest age category were at a 38% lower risk of breast cancer (RR = 0.62, 95%CI = 0.45–0.85). Breastfeeding for at least 1 or 2 years was associated with a 37% reduction in breast cancer risk (RR = 0.63, 95%CI = 0.46–0.86). Women at the oldest age in the menarche category were at a 34% lower risk of breast cancer (RR = 0.66, 95%CI = 0.53–0.81) than women in the youngest age category. However, none of the reproductive factors were associated with breast cancer risk among BRCA2 mutation carriers. In conclusion, late age at first birth, breastfeeding, and late age at menarche protect against breast cancer in BRCA1 mutation carriers only. Further studies are needed to explore the mechanisms.     

The impact of obesity to antioxidant defense parameters in adolescents with increased cardiovascular risk

BackgroundThe goal of this study was to assess the oxidative stress status through the values of antioxidant defense parameters: superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GR) and total antioxidant status (TAS), as well as cardiovascular risk factors (total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, VLDL-cholesterol, non-HDL-cholesterol and triglycerides), anthropometric parameters (Body mass index-BMI, waist circumference-WC, hipp circumferemce-HC, waist-to-hipp ratio-WHR and inflammatory markers (high sensitive C-reactive protein) in a group of obese adolescents.MethodsA total of 238 students of both sexes, age of 22.32 ± 1.85 yr. were included in the study. According to the values of BMI lower and higher than 25 kg/m2 and WC higher and lower than 94 cm (males)/80 cm (females) the tested group of students was divided into 2 subgroups: Group 1 (increased risk for CVD) and Group 2 (lower risk for CVD).ResultsSignificantly reduced SOD and GPx with increased GR, TAS, inflammatory and lipoprotein parameters were obtained in Group 1 compared to Group 2. Significant positive association of hsCRP (OR:1.41; 95%CI 1.08-1.83; P=0.007), TAS (OR:827.2; 95%CI 19.27-35498; P=0.007) and GR (OR:1.13; 95%CI 1.05-1.21; P=0.002) and negative association of GPx (OR:0.97; 95%CI 0.94-1.003; P=0.043) and HDL-cholesterol (OR:0.41; 95%CI 0.176-0.963; P=0.0014) with cardiovascular risk factors were found in obese students. According to the ROC analysis GR>44.8 U/L, TAS>1.35 mmol/L, hsCRP>1.71 mg/L and HDL-cholesterol <1.13 mmol/L have sufficient predictive ability for cardiovascular disease in obese students.ConclusionsSignificant association of antioxidant defense parameters with anthropometric, lipid and inflammatory markers in obese students with increased cardiovascular risk suggest that screening of these parameters is necessary and highly recommended.     

Healthy lifestyle and breast cancer risk: A case-control study in Morocco

BackgroundSome modifiable risk factors have been independently associated with breast cancer (BC) risk in Moroccan women, but no studies have investigated their joint association. This study aimed to investigate the association between a Healthy Lifestyle Index (HLI) score and BC risk among Moroccan women.MethodsIn this case–control study, 300 incident BC cases and 300 controls, matched by age and area of residence were recruited. Cases were women newly-diagnosed with histopathologically–confirmed BC at the University Hospital in Fez, Morocco. Controls were randomly selected healthy women recruited from 6 primary health centers in Fez. HLI scores developed within this study were assigned to participants based on 11 factors (red and processed meat, white meat, cream, cheese, fish, fruit and vegetables, physical activity, BMI, smoking, alcohol consumption, and breastfeeding), where 0 was given to unhealthy and 0.5 or 1 to healthy levels of each factor. Conditional and unconditional logistic regression models were used to assess the association between HLI scores and BC risk.ResultsMean of HLI scores were 8.1 (±1.1) and 9.0 (±0.9) in cases and controls, respectively, p < 0.01. After adjusting for potential confounders, one-point increment in the HLI score was associated with 56% (95% CI, CI: 39–68%), 49% (95% CI: 30–63%), and 59% (95% CI: 40–72%) lower risks of BC in all, premenopausal, and postmenopausal women, respectively.ConclusionHigh HLI scores were associated with decreased risk of BC in Moroccan women. These findings suggest that BC prevention policies should include strategies for engaging Moroccan women in healthy lifestyles.     

Antiestrogen use in breast cancer patients reduces the risk of subsequent lung cancer: A population-based study

BackgroundThere is accumulating epidemiological and preclinical evidence that estrogen might be a driver of lung cancer. Breast cancer survivors can offer a unique patient cohort to examine the effect of antiestrogen therapy on lung cancer carcinogenesis because many of these women would have received long-term selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) and/or aromatase inhibitors (AIs) as adjuvant treatment. Our hypothesis is that estrogens play a role in lung cancer development, and that antiestrogen therapy would affect the incidence of subsequent lung cancer among breast cancer survivors.MethodsUsing the Taiwan National Health Insurance (NHI) database, the study included 40,900 survivors of non-metastatic breast cancer after primary surgery, and most antiestrogen users complied well with the medication regimen. We evaluate the effect of antiestrogen therapy on the incidence of subsequent lung cancers.ResultsThis population-based study revealed that antiestrogen use in breast cancer patients was associated with a reduced risk of subsequent lung cancer in older patients (≥50 years) (HR 0.73, 95%CI 0.54–0.99) when compared with breast cancer survivors who did not use antiestrogens.ConclusionThe study supports the hypothesis that antiestrogen therapy modifies lung cancer carcinogenesis in older women. Further well-designed clinical trials to explore the potential of antiestrogens in lung cancer prevention and treatment would be worthwhile.     

Chronotype and postmenopausal breast cancer risk among women in the California Teachers Study

ABSTRACT

Chronotype is the behavioral manifestation of an individual’s underlying circadian rhythm, generally characterized by one’s propensity to sleep at a particular time during the 24 hour cycle. Evening chronotypes (“night owls”) generally suffer from worse physical and mental health compared to morning chronotypes (“morning larks”) – for reasons that have yet to be explained. One hypothesis is that evening chronotypes may be more susceptible to circadian disruption, a condition where the coordinated timing of biologic processes breaks down. The role of chronotype as an independent or modifying risk factor for cancer has not been widely explored. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the risk of breast cancer associated with chronotype in a case-control study nested within the California Teachers Study (CTS) cohort. The study population consisted of 39686 post-menopausal CTS participants who provided information on chronotype by completing a questionnaire in 2012–2013. 2719 cases of primary invasive breast cancer diagnosed from 1995/1996 through completion of the chronotype questionnaire were identified by linkage of the CTS to the California Cancer Registry. 36967 CTS participants who had remained cancer-free during this same time period served as controls. Chronotype was ascertained by responses to an abbreviated version of the Horne-Ostberg Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) and was characterized into five categories: definite morning, more morning than evening, neither morning or evening, more evening than morning, definite evening. Multivariable unconditional logistic regression analyses were performed to estimate the odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) for each of the chronotypes, adjusted for established breast cancer risk factors. Compared to definite morning types, definite evening types had an increased risk of breast cancer with elevated ORs that were statistically significant in both the crude (OR = 1.24, 95% CI: 1.10–1.40) and fully-adjusted models (OR = 1.20, 95% CI: 1.06–1.35). The risk estimates in the fully-adjusted model for all other chronotypes did not significantly differ from one. These results suggest that evening chronotype may be an independent risk factor for breast cancer among a population of women who are not known to have engaged in any substantial night shift work. Further research in other populations of non-shift workers is warranted.     

The relationship of single-strand breaks in DNA to breast cancer risk and to tissue concentrations of oestrogens

Context: Clinical study of breast cancer patients in Chicago, IL, USA.

Objective: Ascertain the utility of measurements of single-strand breaks (SSB) in DNA for assessment of breast cancer risk.

Methods: Fine-needle aspirates of the breast, SSB by nick translation, percent breast density (PBD), Gail model risk, cumulative methylation index (CMI), enzymes of DNA repair and tissue antioxidants.

Results: DNA repair enzymes and 4-hydroxyestradiol were negatively associated with SSB; CMI and PBD were positively associated.

Conclusions: Quantitative measurement of SSBs by this procedure indicates the relative number of SSBs and is related to promoter methylation, antioxidant availability and percent breast density.     

Genes, fat intake, and cardiovascular disease risk factors in the Quebec Family Study

Objective: The aim of this study was to assess gene‐diet interaction effects on cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors (waist circumference, plasma triacylglycerol, high‐density lipoprotein‐cholesterol and fasting glucose concentrations, and diastolic and systolic blood pressure) in the Quebec Family Study cohort. Design: Sixty‐four polymorphisms from 45 candidate genes were studied in 645 subjects. Dietary fat intake was obtained from a 3‐day weighted food record. Results: We observed 18 significant interactions at a p value ≤ 0.01. Among them, the Pro12Ala polymorphism in peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptor γ, alone or in interaction with fat intake, significantly modulated waist circumference (p = 0.0005 for both effects). Additionally, the apolipoprotein E genotype in interaction with fat intake was significantly associated with diastolic and systolic blood pressure (p = 0.01 and p = 0.001, respectively). The ghrelin Leu72Met polymorphism also interacted with dietary fat in its relation to waist circumference and triacylglycerol concentrations (p = 0.0004 and p = 0.005). Discussion: These results suggest that several alleles at candidate genes interact with dietary fat intake to modulate well‐known CVD risk factors. The identification of gene‐diet interaction effects is likely to provide useful information concerning the etiology of CVD.