Dystroglycan expression is reduced during prostate tumorigenesis and is regulated by androgens in prostate cancer cells

Prostate cancer, the most frequently diagnosed cancer in Western men, can display a high variability in term of clinical aggressiveness and prognosis and none of the available markers is able to accurately predict its clinical course. Dystroglycan (DG), a non-integrin adhesion molecule, is a complex formed by two subunits, alpha- and beta-DG, which bind to extracellular matrix molecules and cytoskeleton, respectively. DG expression is frequently reduced in human cancers and has been related to tumor grade and aggressiveness. This study investigated the role of DG in human prostate tumorigenesis and its suitability as a prognostic marker. The expression level of extracellular alpha-DG subunit was frequently reduced in human prostate cancer cell lines and primary tumors and the percentage of positive tumor cells was significantly further decreased in vivo following androgen ablation therapy (median = 1%) compared to pre-treatment samples (median = 28%). A significant relationship was observed between alpha-DG staining on the post-treatment samples and tumor recurrence. A dose- and time-dependent decrease of DG expression also occurred in human prostate cancer cells following treatment with the anti-androgen flutamide. Stable expression of an exogenous DG cDNA in the LNCaP human prostate carcinoma cell line resulted in a marked inhibition of both anchorage-dependent and independent growth and of the in vivo tumorigenicity. These findings confirm and extend previous evidence that disturbances in the function of the DG complex might contribute to the definition of the malignant behavior of prostate cancer cells and suggest that androgens might regulate DG expression in these cells.     

Vitamin D3 modulated gene expression patterns in human primary normal and cancer prostate cells

The vitamin D receptor (VDR) is a member of the steroid/retinoid receptor superfamily of nuclear receptors and has potential tumor-suppressive functions in prostate and other cancer types. Vitamin D3 (VD3) exerts its biological actions by binding within cells to VDR. The VDR then interacts with specific regions of the DNA in cells, and triggers changes in the activity of genes involved in cell division, cell survival, and cellular function. Using human primary cultures and the prostate cancer (PCa) cell line, ALVA-31, we examined the effects of VD3 under different culture conditions. Complete G0/G1 arrest of ALVA-31 cells and approximately 50% inhibition of tumor stromal cell growth was observed. To determine changes in gene expression patterns related to VD3 activity, microarray analysis was performed. More than approximately 20,000 genes were evaluated for twofold relative increases and decreases in expression levels. A number of the gene targets that were up- and down-regulated are related to potential mechanisms of prostatic growth regulation. These include estrogen receptor (ER), heat shock proteins: 70 and 90, Apaf1, Her-2/neu, and paxillin. Utilizing antibodies generated against these targets, we were able to confirm the changes at the protein level. These newly reported gene expression patterns provide novel information not only potential markers, but also on the genes involved in VD3 induced apoptosis in PCa.     

Effects of androgen receptor and androgen on gene expression in prostate stromal fibroblasts and paracrine signaling to prostate cancer cells

The androgen receptor (AR) is expressed in a subset of prostate stromal cells and functional stromal cell AR is required for normal prostate developmental and influences the growth of prostate tumors. Although we are broadly aware of the specifics of the genomic actions of AR in prostate cancer cells, relatively little is known regarding the gene targets of functional AR in prostate stromal cells. Here, we describe a novel human prostate stromal cell model that enabled us to study the effects of AR on gene expression in these cells. The model involves a genetically manipulated variant of immortalized human WPMY-1 prostate stromal cells that overexpresses wildtype AR (WPMY-AR) at a level comparable to LNCaP cells and is responsive to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) stimulation. Use of WPMY-AR cells for gene expression profiling showed that the presence of AR, even in the absence of DHT, significantly altered the gene expression pattern of the cells compared to control (WPMY-Vec) cells. Treatment of WPMY-AR cells, but not WPMY-Vec control cells, with DHT resulted in further changes that affected the expression of 141 genes by 2-fold or greater compared to vehicle treated WPMY-AR cells. Remarkably, DHT significantly downregulated more genes than were upregulated but many of these changes reversed the initial effects of AR overexpression alone on individual genes. The genes most highly effected by DHT treatment were categorized based upon their role in cancer pathways or in cell signaling pathways (transforming growth factor-β, Wnt, Hedgehog and MAP Kinase) thought to be involved in stromal-epithelial crosstalk during prostate or prostate cancer development. DHT treatment of WPMY-AR cells was also sufficient to alter their paracrine potential for prostate cancer cells as conditioned medium from DHT-treated WPMY-AR significantly increased growth of LNCaP cells compared to DHT-treated WPMY-Vec cell conditioned medium.     

Chemoresistance in prostate cancer cells is regulated by miRNAs and Hedgehog pathway

Many prostate cancers relapse due to the generation of chemoresistance rendering first-line treatment drugs like paclitaxel (PTX) ineffective. The present study aims to determine the role of miRNAs and Hedgehog (Hh) pathway in chemoresistant prostate cancer and to evaluate the combination therapy using Hh inhibitor cyclopamine (CYA). Studies were conducted on PTX resistant DU145-TXR and PC3-TXR cell lines and clinical prostate tissues. Drug sensitivity and apoptosis assays showed significantly improved cytotoxicity with combination of PTX and CYA. To distinguish the presence of cancer stem cell like side populations (SP), Hoechst 33342 flow cytometry method was used. PTX resistant DU145 and PC3 cells, as well as human prostate cancer tissue possess a distinct SP fraction. Nearly 75% of the SP cells are in the G0/G1 phase compared to 62% for non-SP cells and have higher expression of stem cell markers as well. SP cell fraction was increased following PTX monotherapy and treatment with CYA or CYA plus PTX effectively reduced their numbers suggesting the effectiveness of combination therapy. SP fraction cells were allowed to differentiate and reanalyzed by Hoechst staining and gene expression analysis. Post differentiation, SP cells constitute 15.8% of total viable cells which decreases to 0.6% on treatment with CYA. The expression levels of P-gp efflux protein were also significantly decreased on treatment with PTX and CYA combination. MicroRNA profiling of DU145-TXR and PC3-TXR cells and prostate cancer tissue from the patients showed decreased expression of tumor suppressor miRNAs such as miR34a and miR200c. Treatment with PTX and CYA combination restored the expression of miR200c and 34a, confirming their role in modulating chemoresistance. We have shown that supplementing mitotic stabilizer drugs such as PTX with Hh-inhibitor CYA can reverse PTX chemoresistance and eliminate SP fraction in androgen independent, metastatic prostate cancer cell lines.     

Characterization of Vitamin D insensitive prostate cancer cells

The antitumor effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ (calcitriol) are being exploited for prevention and treatment of prostate cancer (CaP). These studies examined the antiproliferative effects of calcitriol in primary cell cultures derived from transgenic adenocarcinoma of mouse prostate (TRAMP) mice chronically treated with calcitriol (20 μg/kg) or vehicle 3×/week from 4 weeks-of-age until palpable tumors developed. This is a report on the response of two representative control (Vitamin D naïve, naïve) and calcitriol-treated (Vitamin D insensitive, VDI) cells to calcitriol. VDI cells were less sensitive to calcitriol based on less cell growth inhibition and less inhibition of DNA synthesis as measured by MTT and BrdU incorporation assays. Similarly, VDI cells were less sensitive to growth inhibition by the vitamin analog, 19-nor-1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₂ (paricalcitol). There was no change in apoptosis following treatment of naïve and VDI cells with calcitriol. Vitamin D receptor (VDR) expression was up-regulated by calcitriol in both naïve and VDI cells. In addition, calcitriol induced the Vitamin D metabolizing enzyme, 24-hydroxylase (cyp24) mRNA and enzyme activity similarly in naïve and VDI cells as measured by RT-PCR and HPLC, respectively. In summary, VDI cells are less responsive to the antiproliferative effects of calcitriol. Understanding Vitamin D insensitivity will further clinical development of Vitamin D compounds for prevention and treatment of CaP.     

Vitamin D and prostate cancer

Vitamin D and its metabolites are best known for their actions in calcium and bone metabolism. However, epidemiological studies have suggested that an increased prostate cancer risk is associated with decreased production of vitamin D. In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that the biologically active form of vitamin D, 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25D), inhibits proliferation of cancer cells derived from multiple tissues, including the prostate. Although the mechanisms underlying the growth inhibitory effects of 1,25D have not been fully elucidated, in prostate cancer cells 1,25D reduces cell growth via a number of cellular pathways, including cell cycle arrest, induction of apoptosis, and altered activation of growth factor signaling. The hypercalcemia induced by 1,25D in vivo limits its use clinically as a therapeutic agent. However, several 1,25D analogs have been developed that reduce prostate tumor growth in rodent xenograft models without causing hypercalcemia. Additional studies are required in order to determine whether these 1,25D analogs will be useful therapeutic agents for the treatment of prostate cancer.     

Vitamin D and prostate cancer

Our recent epidemiological study (Ahonen et al., Cancer Causes Control 11(2000) (847–852)) suggests that vitamin D deficiency may increase the risk of initiation and progression of prostate cancer. The nested case–control study was based on a 13-year follow-up of about 19 000 middle-aged men free of clinically verified prostate cancer. More than one-half of the serum samples had 25OH-vitamin D (25-VD) levels below 50 nmol/l, suggesting VD deficiency. Prostate cancer risk was highest among the group of younger men (40–51 years) with low serum 25-VD, whereas low serum 25-VD appeared not to increase the risk of prostate cancer in older men (>51 years). This suggests that VD has a protective role against prostate cancer only before the andropause, when serum androgen concentrations are higher. The lowest 25-VD concentrations in the younger men were associated with more aggressive prostate cancer. Furthermore, the high 25-VD levels delayed the appearance of clinically verified prostate cancer by 1.8 years. Since these results suggest that vitamin D has a protective role against prostate cancer, we tried to determine whether full spectrum lighting (FSL) during working hours could increase serum 25-VD concentrations. After 1-month exposure, there was no significant increase in the serum 25-VD level, although there was a bias towards slightly increasing values in the test group as opposed to decreasing values in controls. There was no significant change in the skin urocanic acid production. The possibility to use FSL in cancer prevention is discussed. In order to clarify the mechanism of VD action on cell proliferation and differentiation, we performed studies with the rat and human prostates as well prostate cancer cell lines. It is possible that 25-VD may have a direct role in the host anticancer defence activity, but the metabolism of vitamin D in the prostate may also play an important role in its action. We raised antibodies against human 1-hydroxylase and 24-hydroxylase. Our preliminary results suggest that vitamin D is actively metabolised in the prostate. Vitamin D appears to upregulate androgen receptor expression, whereas androgens seem to upregulate vitamin D receptor (VDR). This may at least partially explain the androgen dependence of VD action. VD alone or administered with androgen causes a suppression of epithelial cell proliferation. VD can activate mitogen-activated kinases, erk-1 and erk-2, within minutes and p38 within hours. Also, auto/paracrine regulation might be involved, since keratinocyte growth factor (mRNA and protein) was clearly induced by VD. Based on these studies, a putative model for VD action on cell proliferation and differentiation is presented.     

Selenoprotein expression is regulated at multiple levels in prostate cells

Due to a production error,some mistakes have been introduced in labels of Figure 1C,Figure 2C,and Figure 4B.The     

Selenoprotein expression is regulated at multiple levels in prostate cells

Selenium supplementation in a population with low basal blood selenium levels has been reported to decrease the incidence of several cancers including prostate cancer. Based on the clinical findings, it is likely that the antioxidant function of one or more selenoproteins is responsible for the chemopreventive effect, although low molecular weight seleno-compounds have also been posited to selectively induce apoptosis in transformed cells. To address the effects of selenium supplementation on selenoprotein expression in prostate cells, we have undertaken an analysis of antioxidant selenoprotein expression as well as selenium toxicity in non-tumorigenic prostate epithelial cells （RWPE- 1 ） and prostate cancer cells （LNCaP and PC-3）. Our results show that two of the glutathione peroxidase family members （GPX1 and GPX4） are highly induced by supplemental selenium in prostate cancer cells but only slightly induced in RWPE-1 cells. In addition, GPX 1 levels are dramatically lower in PC-3 cells as compared to RWPE- 1 or LNCaP cells. GPX2 protein and mRNA, however, are only detectable in RWPE-1 cells. Of the three selenium compounds tested （sodium selenite, sodium selenate and selenomethionine）, only sodium selenite shows toxicity in a physiological range of selenium concentrations. Notably and in contrast to previous studies, RWPE-1 cells were significantly more sensitive to selenite than either of the prostate cancer cell lines. These results demonstrate that selenoproteins and selenium metabolism are regulated at multiple levels in prostate cells.     

Novel surface expression of reticulocalbin 1 on bone endothelial cells and human prostate cancer cells is regulated by TNF-alpha

An unbiased cDNA expression phage library derived from bone-marrow endothelial cells was used to identify novel surface adhesion molecules that might participate in metastasis. Herein we report that reticulocalbin 1 (RCN1) is a cell surface-associated protein on both endothelial (EC) and prostate cancer (PCa) cell lines. RCN1 is an H/KDEL protein with six EF-hand, calcium-binding motifs, found in the endoplasmic reticulum. Our data indicate that RCN1 also is expressed on the cell surface of several endothelial cell lines, including human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HDMVECs), bone marrow endothelial cells (BMEC), and transformed human bone marrow endothelial cells (TrHBMEC). While RCN1 protein levels were highest in lysates from HDMVEC, this difference was not statistically significant compared BMEC and TrHBMEC. Given preferential adhesion of PCa to bone-marrow EC, these data suggest that RCN1 is unlikely to account for the preferential metastasis of PCa to bone. In addition, there was not a statistically significant difference in total RCN1 protein expression among the PCa cell lines. RCN1 also was expressed on the surface of several PCa cell lines, including those of the LNCaP human PCa progression model and the highly metastatic PC-3 cell line. Interestingly, RCN1 expression on the cell surface was upregulated by tumor necrosis factor alpha treatment of bone-marrow endothelial cells. Taken together, we show cell surface localization of RCN1 that has not been described previously for either PCa or BMEC and that the surface expression on BMEC is regulated by pro-inflammatory TNF-alpha.     

Vitamin D and prostate cancer.

Classically, the actions of vitamin D have been associated with bone and mineral metabolism. More recent studies have shown that vitamin D metabolites induce differentiation and/or inhibit cell proliferation of a number of malignant and nonmalignant cell types including prostate cancer cells. Epidemiological studies show correlations between the risk factors for prostate cancer and conditions that can result in decreased vitamin D levels. The active metabolite of vitamin D, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (calcitriol), inhibits growth of both primary cultures of human prostate cancer cells and cancer cell lines, but the mechanism by which the cells are growth-inhibited has not been clearly defined. Initial studies suggest that calcitriol alters cell cycle progression and may also initiate apoptosis. One of the disadvantages of using vitamin D in vivo is side-effects such as hypercalcemia at doses above physiological levels. Analogs of calcitriol have been developed that have comparable or more potent antiproliferative effects but are less calcemic. Further research into the mechanisms of vitamin D action in prostate and identification of suitable analogs for use in vivo may lead to its use in the treatment or prevention of prostate cancer.     

Vitamin D binding protein-macrophage activating factor directly inhibits proliferation, migration, and uPAR expression of prostate cancer cells

Background

Vitamin D binding protein-macrophage activating factor (DBP-maf) is a potent inhibitor of tumor growth. Its activity, however, has been attributed to indirect mechanisms such as boosting the immune response by activating macrophages and inhibiting the blood vessel growth necessary for the growth of tumors.

Methods and Findings

In this study we show for the first time that DBP-maf exhibits a direct and potent effect on prostate tumor cells in the absence of macrophages. DBP-maf demonstrated inhibitory activity in proliferation studies of both LNCaP and PC3 prostate cancer cell lines as well as metastatic clones of these cells. Flow cytometry studies with annexin V and propidium iodide showed that this inhibitory activity is not due to apoptosis or cell death. DBP-maf also had the ability to inhibit migration of prostate cancer cells in vitro. Finally, DBP-maf was shown to cause a reduction in urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR) expression in prostate tumor cells. There is evidence that activation of this receptor correlates with tumor metastasis.

Conclusions

These studies show strong inhibitory activity of DBP-maf on prostate tumor cells independent of its macrophage activation.     

p53负调控前列腺癌细胞中PC-1基因的表达

在前列腺癌进展中发生的PC-1基因表达失调和p53基因突变,提示这两个事件之间可能存在的联系.用依托泊苷处理前列腺癌LNCaP细胞后,PC-1蛋白的表达受抑制;瞬时转染分析表明野生型p53负调控PC-1启动子的转录活性;缺失突变分析将PC-1基因启动子上受p53负调控的区域定位在翻译起始位点上游757 bp～323 bp之间.缺失PC-1启动子上的雄激素受体反应元件并没有消除p53对其转录活性的抑制作用;无论p53是否存在,组蛋白去乙酰化酶抑制剂TSA处理LNCaP细胞后可以导致PC-1启动子转录活性升高.因此,p53和去乙酰化酶可以独立抑制PC-1启动子活性.这些研究结果表明,野生型p53负调控PC-1基因启动子的转录活性,而前列腺癌进展过程中p53突变可能和PC-1基因的表达失调有关.     

Vitamin D3 inhibits fatty acid synthase expression by stimulating the expression of long-chain fatty-acid-CoA ligase 3 in prostate cancer cells

FAS and FACL3 are enzymes of fatty acid metabolism. In our previous studies, we found that FAS and FACL3 genes were vitamin D3-regulated and involved in the antiproliferative effect of 1alpha,25(OH)2D3 in the human prostate cancer LNCaP cells. Here, we elucidated the mechanism behind the downregulation of FAS expression by vitamin D3. Triacsin C, an inhibitor of FACL3 activity, completely abolished the downregulation of FAS expression by vitamin D3, whereas an inhibitor of FAS activity, cerulenin, had no significant effect on the upregulation of FACL3 expression by vitamin D3 in LNCaP cells. In human prostate cancer PC3 cells, in which FACL3 expression is not regulated by vitamin D3, no regulation of FAS expression was seen. This suggests that the downregulation of FAS expression by vitamin D3 is mediated by vitamin D3 upregulation of FACL3 expression. Myristic acid, one of the substrates preferential for FACL3, enhanced the repression of FAS expression by vitamin D3. The action of myristic acid was abrogated by inhibition of FACL3 activity, suggesting that the enhancement in the downregulation of FAS expression by vitamin D3 is due to the formation of myristoyl-CoA. The data suggest that vitamin D3-repression of FAS mRNA expression is the consequence of feedback inhibition of FAS expression by long chain fatty acyl-CoAs, which are formed by FACL3 during its upregulation by vitamin D3 in human prostate cancer LNCaP cells.     

Epigenetic repression of transcription by the Vitamin D3 receptor in prostate cancer cells

Normal prostate epithelial cells are acutely sensitive to the antiproliferative action of 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) (1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3)), whilst prostate cancer cell lines and primary cultures display a range of sensitivities. We hypothesised that key antiproliferative target genes of the Vitamin D receptor (VDR) were repressed by an epigenetic mechanism in 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3)-insensitive cells. Supportively, we found elevated nuclear receptor co-repressor and reduced VDR expression correlated with reduced sensitivity to the antiproliferative action of 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3). Furthermore, the growth suppressive actions of 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3) can be restored by co-treatment with low doses of histone deacetylation inhibitors, such as trichostatin A (TSA) to induce apoptosis. Examination of the regulation of VDR target genes revealed that co-treatment of 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3) plus TSA co-operatively upregulated GADD45alpha. Similarly in a primary cancer cell culture, the regulation of appeared GADD45alpha repressed. These data demonstrate that prostate cancer cells utilise a mechanism involving deacetylation to suppress the responsiveness of VDR target genes and thus ablate the antiproliferative action of 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3).