Expected early genetic gain from selection for milk yield in dairy cattle

Summary A matrix program to predict short term genetic gain from single trait selection for milk yield was developed. Rate of genetic gain was calculated as the annual change in the mean breeding value of all producing females. Several parameters sets representing various selection policies were used to examine situations pertinent to dairy populations of the United States. Approach to the asymptotic rates of genetic gain within the model varied with the choice of parameters, but even with consistent selection policies, predicted total genetic gain in the first 10 years was only half of the expected from classical theory. Considerable year to year variation in the rate of gain occurred. Early gains were more dependent on female selection decisions than gains during the steady state. In a two-phase model, the approach to the linear rate of gain in the second phase was accelerated by starting with an ongoing improvement program, but considerable delays still existed. Selection for sex- limited traits such as milk yield, which require pedigree selection and a waiting time for progeny test results reached asymptotic rates more slowly than previously assumed.     

Estrogen concentrations in milk at estrus and ovulation in dairy cows

The aim of the present study was two-fold. First, to characterize the secretory profiles of oestradiol-17beta and progesterone in relation to the structural changes observed by ultrasonography during follicular dynamics in non-ovulating llamas. Second, to evaluate the effect of exogenous progesterone on follicular activity, in terms of follicle development and hormone production. In experiment one, six adult non-pregnant, non-lactating llamas were examined daily by rectal palpation and transrectal ultrasonography during 70 days. On day 54, intravaginal devices containing 0.33 g of progesterone (CIDR) were inserted and left in the vagina during 16 days. The mean duration of a follicular wave was 22.6+/-2.5 days. The follicular growth phase (follicles growing from 3mm to maximum size) averaged 9.2+/-2.8 days, the mature phase (follicles around maximum size) 5.2+/-1.4 days and regression phase (follicles with decreasing size) 8.2+/-2.2 days. Oestradiol-17beta plasma concentrations exhibited a similar wave pattern (P<0.05). In addition, oestradiol-17beta peak plasma concentrations (46.9+/-3.3 pmoll(-1)) were attained approximately 12 days after the beginning of the growing phase in connection with maximum follicle size (11.8+/-1.6mm). After CIDR insertion, a rapid increase in plasma progesterone concentrations was observed, with peak concentrations attained on day 1 after insertion. Thereafter, concentrations decreased gradually. Mean follicle size steadily decreased from the day of CIDR insertion to day 11 post-insertion (10.3+/-1.6 and 3.3+/-0.8mm, respectively). In order to investigate the effect of follicle size at CIDR insertion on the outcome of progesterone treatment, experiment two was designed. Sixteen adult non-pregnant and non-lactating llamas were divided into four groups according to follicle development at the time of CIDR insertion (group I: follicles < or =6 mm; group II: follicles between 6 and 9 mm; group III: follicles between 10 and 14 mm and group IV, regressing follicles). In groups II, III and IV, a significant decrease in follicle size was observed after the insertion of the CIDR device. In group I, no further development of dominant follicles was observed until the device was withdrawn. In all cases, the smallest diameter was registered between days 5 and 7 after the beginning of treatment. In conclusion, a detailed characterization of follicular waves using ultrasound and hormone determinations simultaneously in non-ovulating llamas and after the insertion of progesterone releasing devices, is presented.     

Chronic stress, hormone profiles and estrus intensity in dairy cattle

The objectives of the present study were to determine if lameness, a model for a natural chronic stressor, affects hormone concentrations in milk prior to estrus and/or the subsequent expression of estrus in the postpartum period. Dairy cows>20 days postpartum were scored for lameness and observed for estrus intensity using a weighted scoring system (>100 points=estrus=Day 0). Increasing lameness score was not associated with daily profiles of milk progesterone (throughout Days -18 to 0), estradiol (Days -6 to 2) or cortisol (Days -18 to 2) around estrus, maximum estradiol values or estradiol concentrations on Day 0. However, post hoc pair wise comparisons revealed that prior to estrus, severely lame cows had lower maximum progesterone concentrations compared to nonlame cows (1.3+/-0.1, 1.2+/-0.2, 0.7+/-0.1 ng/ml milk; P=0.042). Furthermore, severely lame cows expressed behavioral estrus with lower intensity (284+/-128 points, n=9) compared to moderately lame (662+/-310 points, n=9) or nonlame animals (583+/-275 points, n=18; P=0.05 and P=0.02, respectively). Resting concentrations of cortisol (Days 20-80 postpartum) did not vary between days postpartum or lameness score. The incidence of behavioral estrus was not affected by increasing lameness score, as 54.2%, 56.2% and 50.0% periods with low progesterone were associated with spontaneous estrus expression, respectively. Concluding, in this biological model of chronic stress, lameness did not affect the incidence of behavioral estrus but did reduce estrus intensity once ovarian cyclicity had resumed after calving. This reduced intensity of estrus was associated with lower maximum progesterone values prior to estrus but not abnormal daily cortisol or estradiol values in milk.     

Relationship between progesterone concentrations in milk and blood and time of ovulation in dairy cattle

The objective of this study was to investigate whether monitoring progesterone concentrations in milk and blood plasma can be used to predict time of ovulation in dairy cattle. Whole milk was sampled twice daily and blood samples were collected once a day before the morning milking. Ovulation was assessed by trans-rectal ultrasonography at 4h intervals beginning from the end of estrus. For a parameter to be useful as predictor for time of ovulation, it should be precise (i.e. variation between animals should not exceed 12h). In milk, progesterone concentration dropped <15 ng/ml at 97.7+/-17.8h (range: 54-126 h) before ovulation, to <5 ng/ml at 79.7+/-11.2h (range: 54-98) before ovulation to decline further to <2n g/ml at 70.7+/-16.8h (range: 38-90 h) before ovulation (n=20). In plasma, progesterone concentration dropped to <4ng/ml 90.5+/-19.6h (range: 66-138 h) before ovulation and to <2 ng/ml at 75.0+/-12.2 h (range: 50-98) before ovulation. These intervals were not influenced by parity, milk production or days in milk. In conclusion, monitoring of progesterone alone is not sufficient to predict ovulation because of the large variation in timing of decrease of progesterone concentrations relative to ovulation between animals. At best the range is about 2 days.     

Relationship between mammary morphology traits and milk yield of Sicilo-Sarde dairy sheep in Tunisia

Sicilo-Sarde is a local breed from northern Tunisia resulting from crossing Sarda and Comisana dairy sheep and is traditionally used for cheese production after lamb weaning. A sample of 52 adult Sicilo-Sarde lactating ewes was used for studying their udder morphological traits and milk yield potential during weeks 4-8 (milking-suckling period) and 10 (milking period) of lactation. Daily milk yield was estimated on a daily basis by using the double oxytocin injection method 4 h after machine-milking at d 30 and 45. Udder and teat morphology were also measured at d 45 of lactation. Cisternal area (by ultrasonography) and udder compartments (cisternal and alveolar milk) were evaluated 8 h after milking by using atosiban and oxytocin on d 72 of lactation. Milk yield averaged 0.56 ± 0.10 L/d and ewes had small (volume, 496 ± 28 mL) and healthy udders (CMT, <1), with medium sized teats (length, 18.5 ± 4.9 mm; diameter, 10.0 ± 2.0 mm) attached at 45 ± 10°. A drop in milk production (49%) was found in the transition from suckling (day 30) to milking (week 10). Udder cisterns were multilocular and small sized (half udder area, 11.6 ± 4.5 cm²), although cisternal milk accounted for 54% of the total milk in the udder. Correlation between cisternal milk and cisternal area was moderate (R² = 0.48; P < 0.05). Lag time and total milking time were 1.9 ± 0.1 and 31 ± 5 s, respectively. In conclusion, the Sicilo-Sarde ewes evaluated showed medium sized cisterns and teats which were morphologically adequate for machine milking, although milk production needs to be improved.     

Relationship of physiological factors to placental retention in dairy cattle

Various physiological and environmental factors were examined for possible association with retention of the fetal membranes in a herd experiencing a high incidence of this problem. Data were collected on 116 multiparous and primiparous cows during the first lactation of the trial and 57 multiparous cows during the second lactation of the trial. No mineral or heavy metal deficiencies or toxicities were detected in the herd and injections of selenium and/or vitamins A, D and E during the prepartum period were not beneficial. Also, no common disease entity could be found in this herd. Placental retention rates observed were 28% and 42% in the first and second lactations, respectively, of this study. The incidence of retained placenta was higher in cows giving birth to twins or male calves, and following abortions, stillbirths or placental retention at the previous parturition. Seasonal effects varied, with a higher retention rate in the warm season in the first lactation and in the cold season in the second lactation. Factors examined that did not show a statistically significant relationship to the placental retention rate included: blood serum vitamin A and β-carotene concentrations; age or lactation number; calf birth weight; presence of serum antibodies to leucosis or chlamydia; incidence of milk fever or ketosis; and services per conception, days open and gestation length of the pregnancy prior to retention. Cows with retained placenta subsequently had longer postpartum intervals to first ovulation and more uterine infections, foot problems and mastitis than cows without retained placenta.     

Dietary influence on protein level in milk and milk yield in dairy cows

Diet can influence the yield of milk protein more than it can influence milk protein content. Providing sufficient dietary crude protein in forms that will maximize amounts of amino acids required for milk protein synthesis to the gastrointestinal tract, in forms that can be digested and absorbed, will provide for optimal milk protein yield and content. Maximizing ruminal microbial protein synthesis is an important part of this strategy. The rest of the strategy involves providing sufficient amounts of the remaining required amino acids as ruminally protected proteins, or amino acids in forms that can be digested in the gastrointestinal tract. A diet deficient in protein will reduce milk protein content 1 to 2 g kg⁻¹ and may substantially reduce yields of milk and milk protein. A diet containing high amounts of readily fermentable carbohydrates may increase milk protein content 1 to 2 g kg⁻¹, and may increase yields of milk and protein, but may also result in digestive and metabolic upsets. Diets containing supplemental fat will increase yield of milk protein, but not as extensively as the increase in yield of milk, because milk protein content is usually reduced 1 to 2 g kg⁻¹. The increased efficiency of milk fat and lactose synthesis is likely to be the reason for this depression in milk protein content. A means of overcoming this problem is a continuing research challenge.     

Reproductive disorders in dairy cattle: I. Respective influence of herds, seasons, milk yield and parity

This study was performed in two large dairy units (with 130 and 213 calving cows each) during one year. The objectives were to investigate 1) epidemiological patterns of main post-partum reproductive disorders (metritis, post-partum and post-service anestrus, repeat breeding and embryonic death) and 2) the impact of herd, calving season, milk yield and parity on these patterns. Approximately 20% of the cows in both herds were not affected by any of the disorders. Prevalence of metritis was high (32 to 44%) and appeared influenced by the herds' conditions interacting with calving months and milk yield effects. Cyclic post-partum anestrus incidence was also essentially affected by the herd effect with an added seasonal interaction. Other disorders in both herds were also primarily subjected to the seasonal effect. Individual milk yield and parity only marginally affected the epidemiological patterns. We concluded that even in similar environmental conditions, no general patterns of incidence of reproductive disorders can be drawn and that they are essentially dependent on the characteristics of each herd management.     

Practical application of daughter yield deviations in dairy cattle breeding

Daughter yield deviations (DYDs) of bulls and yield deviations (YDs) of cows, besides estimated breeding values (EBVs), are standard measures of animals' genetic merits in routine genetic evaluations worldwide. In this contribution, we first point out differences and similarities between DYDs and EBVs calculated for milk, fat and protein yields. While the latter measure represents the additive polygenic value of an animal, the former consists of both the additive polygenic and residual components. Then, a summary of DYDs and YDs calculated for the Polish population of dairy cattle is presented. The estimated correlations between DYDs and EBVs are generally high, but vary considerably depending on the minimum number of daughters used for calculation of DYDs and on the accuracy of calculated DYDs. Using DYDs estimated for each production year for 16 452 bulls, we demonstrate how to use DYDs for the validation of genetic trend estimated in the model used for genetic evaluation. Based on genotypic data of 252 bulls, we show that DYDs can be used for the estimation of candidate gene effects. For each of the yield traits, the within-bull genetic trend was relatively high, ranging between 1.39% of genetic standard deviation per production year for milk and 7.67% of genetic standard deviation per production year for fat, both in the 2nd lactation. Out of 8 polymorphisms tested, 5 showed a significant correlation with DYD, with the highest effect attributed to the polymorphism within the leptin receptor gene, whose additive effect was estimated as 247.33 kg of milk at 2nd parity.     

Performance of dairy cattle clones and evaluation of their milk composition

Genetic and phenotypic performance of U.S. Holstein embryo-split and nuclear-transfer clones was documented for yield and fitness traits. For cows, mean genetic superiority based on pedigree was 186 kg of milk, 9 kg of fat, and 7 kg of protein for embryo-split clones and 165, 10, and 8 kg, respectively, for nuclear-transfer clones compared with the population for the same birth year; pedigree advantage for male clones generally was slightly greater. Estimates of genetic merit that considered a clone's own performance as well as pedigree merit were slightly lower for embryo-split cows than for their full siblings for yield but not for milk composition (fat and protein percentages), mastitis resistance (somatic cell score), longevity (productive life), or cow fertility (daughter pregnancy rate); no corresponding genetic differences were found for nuclear-transfer cows or for cloned bulls regardless of clone type. For bulls, estimated genetic merit based on daughter yield was more similar for clone pairs with apparent identical genotype than for pairs from the same biotechnology but nonidentical as confirmed by blood typing. Yield deviations were lower for clones than for their full siblings. Milk composition (total solids, fat, fatty acid profile, lactose, and protein) also was compared for nuclear-transfer clones (Brown Swiss, Holstein, and Holstein-Jersey cross) with non-cloned cows and literature values; no differences were found for gross chemical composition of milk. No obvious differences were evident between cloned and non-cloned animals or for the milk that they produced.     

Effectiveness of genomic prediction on milk flow traits in dairy cattle

Background

Milkability, primarily evaluated by measurements of milking speed and time, has an economic impact in milk production of dairy cattle. Recently the Italian Brown Swiss Breeders Association has included milking speed in genetic evaluations. The main objective of this study was to investigate the possibility of implementing genomic selection for milk flow traits in the Italian Brown Swiss population and thereby evaluate the potential of genomic selection for novel traits in medium-sized populations. Predicted breeding values and reliabilities based on genomic information were compared with those obtained from traditional breeding values.

Methods

Milk flow measures for total milking time, ascending time, time of plateau, descending time, average milk flow and maximum milk flow were collected on 37 213 Italian Brown Swiss cows. Breeding values for genotyped sires (n = 1351) were obtained from standard BLUP and genome-enhanced breeding value techniques utilizing two-stage and single-step methods. Reliabilities from a validation dataset were estimated and used to compare accuracies obtained from parental averages with genome-enhanced predictions.

Results

Genome-enhanced breeding values evaluated using two-stage methods had similar reliabilities with values ranging from 0.34 to 0.49 for the different traits. Across two-stage methods, the average increase in reliability from parental average was approximately 0.17 for all traits, with the exception of descending time, for which reliability increased to 0.11. Combining genomic and pedigree information in a single-step produced the largest increases in reliability over parent averages: 0.20, 0.24, 0.21, 0.14, 0.20 and 0.21 for total milking time, ascending time, time of plateau, descending time, average milk flow and maximum milk flow, respectively.

Conclusions

Using genomic models increased the accuracy of prediction compared to traditional BLUP methods. Our results show that, among the methods used to predict genome-enhanced breeding values, the single-step method was the most successful at increasing the reliability for most traits. The single-step method takes advantage of all the data available, including phenotypes from non-genotyped animals, and can easily be incorporated into current breeding evaluations.     

Use of physiological parameters to predict milk yield and feed intake in heat-stressed dairy cows

Holstein cows were tested to determine which measures of thermal strain are the better predictors of production over 24–96 h at constant air temperatures of 19 and 29 °C. Both rectal temperature and respiration rate increased within 24 h, followed by milk yield and feed intake reductions after 48 h of heat stress. There were significant correlations between milk yield, feed intake, and rectal temperature. Several physiological strain indices were created to determine if combinations of measures are better than single measures in predicting production under these acute conditions. Mean daily rectal temperature was superior to maximum and minimum daily values of rectal temperature, as well as other indicators of thermal status in predicting dairy cow production. Likewise, mean daily rectal temperature was equal if not better than the physiological strain indices used in this study in predicting production. These data suggest that rectal temperature is superior to both single and combined indicators of thermal status in predicting dairy cow production, and should be considered for future development of physiological strain indices over a longer time period in both laboratory and field environments.     

Fine mapping and physical characterization of two linked quantitative trait loci affecting milk fat yield in dairy cattle on BTA26

Previously, a highly significant QTL affecting fat yield and protein yield and mapped to the bovine BTA26 chromosome has been reported to segregate in the French Holstein cattle population. To confirm and refine the location of this QTL, the original detection experiment was extended by adding 12 new families and genotyping 25 additional microsatellite markers (including 11 newly developed markers). Data were then analyzed by an approach combining both linkage and linkage disequilibrium information, making it possible to identify two linked QTL separated by 20 cM corresponding to approximately 29 Mb. The presence of a QTL affecting protein yield was confirmed but its position was found to be more telomeric than the two QTLunderlying fat yield. Each identified QTL affecting milk fat yield was physically mapped within a segment estimated to be <500 kb. Two strong functional candidate genes involved, respectively, in fatty acid metabolism and membrane permeability were found to be localized within this segment while other functional candidate genes were discarded. A haplotype comprising the favorable allele at each QTL position appears to be overrepresented in the artificial insemination bull population.     

不同小麦品种耗水特性和籽粒产量的差异

在田间试验条件下,采用10个小麦品种,设全生育期不灌水(W0)、灌底墒水+拔节水(W1)、灌底墒水+拔节水+开花水(W2)3个处理,每次灌水量60 mm,研究不同小麦品种不同生育阶段的耗水特点和籽粒产量的差异.结果表明:以W0、W1和W2处理的小麦籽粒产量和水分利用效率(WUE)2因子为指标进行聚类分析,可将10个品种分为3组:高产高水分利用效率组(组Ⅰ)、高产中水分利用效率组(组Ⅱ)和中产低水分利用效率组(组Ⅲ).在W0处理下,组Ⅰ小麦品种的总耗水量、开花至成熟期的耗水量和耗水模系数均低于组Ⅱ和组Ⅲ,籽粒产量最高;在W1处理下,组Ⅰ小麦品种拔节至开花期的耗水量和耗水模系数均低于组Ⅱ和组Ⅲ,开花至成熟期的耗水量和耗水模系数在组Ⅰ、组Ⅱ和组Ⅲ间无显著差异;在W2处理下,组Ⅰ小麦品种的土壤供水量、拔节至开花期的耗水量和耗水模系数均低于组Ⅱ和组Ⅲ,开花至成熟期的耗水量和耗水模系数为组Ⅰ和组Ⅲ低于组Ⅱ.表明组Ⅰ高产高水分利用效率品种为最适宜品种,而底墒水和拔节水各灌60 mm的W1处理是兼顾高产与节水的最佳处理.     

Investigation of major gene for milk yield, milking speed, dry matter intake, and body weight in dairy cattle

The main aim of this study was to determine if there exist any major gene for milk yield (MY), milking speed (MS), dry matter intake (DMI), and body weight (BW) recorded at various stages of lactation in first-lactation dairy cows (2543 observations from 320 cows) kept at the research farm of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology between April 1994 and April 2004. Data were modelled based a simple repeatability covariance structure and analysed by using Bayesian segregation analyses. Gibbs sampling was used to make statistical inferences on posterior distributions; inferences were based on a single run of the Markov chain for each trait with 500,000 samples, with each 10th sample collected because of the high correlation among the samples. The posterior mean (+/-SD) of major gene variance was 2.61 (+/-2.46) for MY, 0.83 (+/-1.26) for MS, 4.37 (+/-2.34) for DMI, and 2056.43 (+/-665.67) for BW. Highest posterior density regions for 3 of the 4 traits did not include 0 (except MS), which supported the evidence for major gene. With additional tests for agreement with Mendelian transmission probabilities, we could only confirm the existence of a major gene for MY, but not for MS, DMI, and BW. Expected Mendelian transmission probabilities and their model fits were also compared.     

Mechanisms involved in the adrenaline-induced blockade of milk ejection in dairy cattle

To elucidate mechanisms by which epinephrine (epi) blocks milk ejection in cattle, blood serum oxytocin (OT) concentrations were measured in four heifers before, during, and after milking following either intrajugular injection of 0.85% saline (S) or epi (3 mg). S did not affect OT concentrations. They peaked 2 min after milking-machine attachment. OT declined 3 min after milking commenced, reaching resting concentrations 10-60 min after milking. Milk yields were not altered by S. Epi did not influence significantly basal OT concentration. Yet, OT released to milking appeared less than the saline control. Peak OT concentration after epi and milking was reached 1 min after machine attachment. OT declined within 3 min after milking commenced. Milk yield was reduced 48% after epi. Jugular vein and carotid arterial OT concentrations and mammary blood flow (MBF) were measured simultaneously in four multiparous cows. Blood was collected before, during, and after milking following S or epi (50 micrograms). Jugular and carotid OT concentrations followed similar patterns for both treatments. Changes in carotid OT concentrations lagged behind those of the jugular vein by approximately 1 min. Elevated carotid OT concentrations were seen in two cows after milking and thought to be derived from non-hypothalamic-neurohypophysial sources. Epi (50 micrograms) did not reduce blood OT concentrations, but reduced MBF by 95%. Milking induced increases in MBF seen in controls, were not observed with epi, and milk yield was reduced by 56%. Our experiments suggest that epi may inhibit OT release to milking stimuli at pharmacological doses. At lower doses, epi exerts its effects peripherally by acutely reducing MFB, thus preventing physiological concentrations of hormone from reaching the myoepithelium. An intrinsic action of epi on the myoepithelial cells of cattle is unlikely, but cannot be ruled out at this time.     

Effects of DGAT1 and GHR on milk yield and milk composition in the Chinese dairy population

Previous studies have demonstrated that the p.Lys232Ala substitution in the acylCoA: diacylglycerol acyltransferase ( DGAT1 ) gene and the p.Phe279Tyr mutation in the growth hormone receptor ( GHR ) gene are the causative quantitative trait loci underlying milk yield and composition on BTA14 and BTA20 respectively. To examine their applications in the genetic improvement of Chinese dairy cattle productivity, we herein investigated the effects of the DGAT1 p.Lys232Ala and GHR p.Phe279Tyr mutations on milk, fat and protein yield, as well as fat and protein percentage in the milk of 1222 Holstein cows. Genotyping was performed using PCR-RFLP for DGAT1 or primer-introduced restriction analysis (PCR-PIRA) for GHR . With a mixed animal model, the significant associations of the DGAT1 p.Lys232Ala substitution with 305-day milk, fat and protein yield were identified ( P  =   0.0001). The DGAT1 allele that encode lysine at position 232 was associated with increased 305-day milk fat yield, but with decreased 305-day milk and protein yield, whereas the GHR p.Phe279Tyr mutation was found to be significantly associated with protein percentage ( P  =   0.0014). The allele substitution effect of p.279Phe by p.279Tyr may lead to a significant increase in protein percentage. Our findings indicate that DGAT1 p.232Ala and GHR p.279Phe could be used to increase milk yield and protein yield of Chinese Holstein cows.     

Genetic mapping of loci responsible for milk quality parameters in dairy cattle

The review presents a definition of loci controlling quantitative traits (quantitative trait loci, QTLs) and localization of all currently known QTLs responsible for milk production traits in dairy cattle. The QTL number and chromosome localization are verified, with special reference to chromosomes 1, 3, 6, 14, 20, and 23. In a number of cases, close location of QTLs for mastitis and for milk production traits was found. Some aspects of QTL pleiotropy and epistasis are discussed and mapping methods of major QTLs are listed.