Immobilisation of cyclodextrin glucanotransferase from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacillus circulans</Emphasis> ATCC 21783 on purified seasand

Cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (CGTase) from Bacillus circulans (ATCC 21783) was immobilised on a silica-based support: purified seasand. Although adsorption of 98% was achieved, considerable desorption was encountered. This problem was minimised by crosslinking the adsorbed enzyme with glutaraldehyde. The immobilised enzyme after crosslinking could be used repeatedly for cyclodextrin (CD) production in a batch process. The activity retention was 80% at the end of the eighth cycle. The immobilised enzyme showed a shift in the pH optimum towards the alkaline side and also an improvement in the pH stability compared to the free enzyme. It catalysed the formation of β-CD as a major product. A significant amount of α-CD production was also observed on prolonged incubation. Electronic Publication     

Anchorage of cyclodextrin glucanotransferase on the outer membrane of Escherichia coli

The gene encoding cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (CGTase) was successfully cloned from B. macerans by PCR. A recombinant plasmid pCS005 with a gene encoding the Lpp-OmpA-CGTase trifusion protein was constructed and transformed into E. coli for the surface display of CGTase. Results of immunoblotting analysis and protease accessibility on the fractionated cell membranes confirmed that the Lpp-OmpA-CGTase trifusion protein was successfully anchored on the outer membrane of E. coli. However, only 50% of the membrane-anchored trifusion proteins were displayed on the outer surface of E. coli with the remaining 50% un-translocated. The low efficiency of surface display is attributed to the large size of CGTase. Only a trace amount of CGTase activity was detected for both the whole cells and the cell debris fractions. Because the results of the protease accessibility study suggested that the trypsin-resistant conformation of CGTase was preserved in the membrane-anchored CGTase, we believe that the lack of enzyme activity is mainly due to the inaccessibility of the CGTase active site, near the N-terminus, for substrate molecules. It can be estimated that the critical size for surface display of protein in E. coli is approximately 70 kDa.     

Optimisation of growth medium for the production of cyclodextrin glucanotransferase from Bacillus stearothermophilus HR1 using response surface methodology

Cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (CGTase) activity was observed when the bacterium was grown in the medium at various initial pH values, containing carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and mineral salt sources at 50 °C for 24 h in the shake flasks. The optimisation of this growth medium was carried out using response surface methodology. The design contains a total of 32 experimental trials involving 10 star points and 6 replicates at the centre points. The design was employed by selecting sago starch, peptone from casein, K₂HPO₄, CaCl₂ and initial pH as five independent variables in this study. The optimal calculated values of tested variables for maximal production of CGTase were found to be comprised of: sago starch, 16.02 g/l; peptone from casein, 20 g/l; K₂HPO₄, 1.4 g/l; CaCl₂, 0.2 g/l and initial pH, 7.54 with a predicted CGTase activity of 14.20 U/ml. These predicted optimal parameters were tested in the laboratory and the final CGTase activity obtained was very close to the predicted value at 14.80 U/ml.     

Cyclodextrin glucanotransferase production by cell biocatalysts of alkaliphilic bacilli

Cells of obligated alkaliphiles Bacillus pseudalcaliphilus 20RF and Bacillus pseudalcaliphilus 8SB isolated from Bulgarian habitats, producers of cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (CGTase, EC 2.4.1.19), were immobilized by three different techniques: on two types of polysulphone membranes; entrapped in agar-gel beads containing magnetite and by nano-particles of silanized magnetite covalently bound on the cell surface. The biocatalysts obtained demonstrated the opportunity for a significantly enhanced CGTase production compared to free cells for a long period of time (10 days semicontinuous cultivation) without impact on their mechanical stability. The cell membrane-biocatalysts exhibited the highest enzyme activity after 240 h repeated batch cultivation and retained 1.3–2.3-fold increase of the CGTase yield compared to free cells at the end of the process. Membrane biocatalysts were applied for a direct cyclodextrin (CD) production. The results obtained demonstrated the possibility of starch conversion into cyclodextrins by immobilized cells without using of crude or purified enzyme. The membrane biocatalysts of both obligated alkaliphiles formed mainly β- and γ-CDs after 6 h enzyme reaction at pH 9.0 of the reaction mixture. Under these conditions, the quantity of γ-CDs was a relative high, to 35–37% of the total CD amount.     

Magnetic porous corn starch for the affinity purification of cyclodextrin glucanotransferase produced by Bacillus circulans

Magnetic porous corn starch was prepared as an affinity adsorbent for the efficient and simple scale-up procedure for one-step purification of cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (CGTase) from Bacillus circulans. Magnetic affinity separation enabled isolation of CGTase from cultivation media (volumes between 10 and 400 mL) with ca 60–70% recovery after elution with alkaline buffers containing soluble starch; the enzyme purification factor was 19–25 in different batches. The majority of ballast proteins were removed during the purification process, which shows high selectivity of the affinity material used.     

Immobilization of cyclodextrin glucanotransferase on amberlite IRA-900 for biosynthesis of transglycosylated xylitol

Cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (CGTase) fromThermoanaerobacter sp. was adsorbed on the ion exchange resin Amberlite IRA-900. The optimum conditions for the immobilization of the CGTase were pH 6.0 and 600 U CGTase/g resin, and the maximum yield of immobilization was around 63% on the basis of the amount ratio of the adsorbed enzyme to the initial amount in the solution. Immobilization of CGTase shifted the optimum temperature for the enzyme to produce transglycosylated xylitol from 70°C to 90°C and improved the thermal stability of immobilized CGTase, especially after the addition of soluble starch and calcium ions. Transglycosylated xylitol was continuously produced using immobilized CGTase in the column type packed bed reactor, and the operating conditions for maximum yield were 10% (w/v) dextrin (13 of the dextrose equivalent) as the glycosyl donor, 10% (w/v) xylitol as the glycosyl acceptor, 20 mL/h of medium flow rate, and 60°C. The maximum yield of transglycosylated xylitol and productivity were 25% and 7.82 g·L⁻¹·h⁻¹, respectively. The half-life of the immobilized CGTase in a column type packed bed reactor was longer than 30 days.     

Enhanced secretory production of hemolysin-mediated cyclodextrin glucanotransferase in Escherichia coli by random mutagenesis of the ABC transporter system

The hemolysin transport system was found to mediate the release of cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (CGTase) into the extracellular medium when it was fused to the C-terminal 61 amino acids of HlyA (HlyAs(61)). To produce an improved-secretion variant, the hly components (hlyAs, hlyB and hlyD) were engineered by directed evolution using error-prone PCR. Hly mutants were screened on solid LB-starch plate for halo zone larger than the parent strain. Through screening of about 1 × 10(4) Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) transformants, we succeeded in isolating five mutants that showed a 35-217% increase in the secretion level of CGTase-HlyAs(61) relative to the wild-type strain. The mutation sites of each mutant were located at HlyB, primarily along the transmembrane domain, implying that the corresponding region was important for the improved secretion of the target protein. In this study we describe the finding of novel site(s) of HlyB responsible for enhancing secretion of CGTase in E. coli.     

Expression of Bacillus macerans cyclodextrin glucanotransferase gene in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (CGTase) gene of Bacillus macerans was subcloned down-stream of yeast ADH1 promoter and expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Most of the CGTase expressed was in the extracellular medium with a maximum activity of about 0.28 unit ml^–1 after 48 h cultivation. The recombinant CGTase was secreted as an N-linked-glycosylated form and predominantly produced -cyclodextrin from starch.     

Characterization of a thermostable cyclodextrin glucanotransferase from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pyrococcus furiosus</Emphasis> DSM3638

A gene that encodes the enzyme Pyrococcus furiosus cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (PFCGT) was cloned in Escherichia coli. PFCGT was highly expressed in recombinant E. coli after compensation for codon usage bias using the pRARE plasmid. Purified PFCGT was extremely thermostable with an optimal temperature and pH of 95°C and 5.0, respectively, retaining 97% of its activity at 100°C. Incubation at 60°C for 20 min during the purification process led to a 1.5-fold increase in enzymatic activity. A time course assay of the PFCGT reaction with starch indicated that cyclic α-1,4-glucans with DPs greater than 20 were produced at the beginning of the incubation followed by an increase in β-CD. The major final product of PFCGT cyclization was β-CD, and thus the enzyme is a β-CGTase.     

Immobilization on Eupergit C of cyclodextrin glucosyltransferase (CGTase) and properties of the immobilized biocatalyst

The extreme thermophilic cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (CGTase) from Thermoanaerobacter sp. was covalently attached to Eupergit C. Different immobilization parameters (incubation time, ionic strength, pH, ratio enzyme/support, etc.) were optimized. The maximum yield of bound protein was around 80% (8.1 mg/g support), although the recovery of β-cyclodextrin cyclization activity was not higher than 11%. The catalytic efficiency was lower than 15%. Results were compared with previous studies on covalent immobilization of CGTase.

The enzymatic properties of immobilized CGTase were investigated and compared with those of the soluble enzyme. Soluble and immobilized CGTases showed similar optimum temperature (80–85 °C) and pH (5.5) values, but the pH profile of the immobilized CGTase was broader at higher pH values. The thermoinactivation of the CGTase coupled to Eupergit C was slower than the observed with the native enzyme. The half-life of the immobilized enzyme at 95 °C was five times higher than that of the soluble enzyme. The immobilized CGTase maintained 40% of its initial activity after 10 cycles of 24 h each. After immobilization, the selectivity of CGTase (determined by the ratio CDs/oligosaccharides) was notably shifted towards oligosaccharide production.     

Production of cyclodextrin by poly-lysine fused Bacillus macerans cyclodextrin glycosyltransferase immobilized on cation exchanger

Bacillus macerans cyclodextrin glycosyltransferase (CGTase) fused with 10 lysine residues at its C-terminus (CGTK10ase) was immobilized onto a cation exchanger by ionic interaction and used to produce -cyclodextrin (CD) from soluble starch. Poly-lysine fused immobilization increased the V_m of the immobilized CGTase by 40% without a change in K_m. The activation energies of thermal deactivation (E_a) were 41.4, 28.1, and 25.9 kcal mol⁻¹, respectively, for soluble wild-type (WT) CGTase, soluble CGTK10ase, and immobilized CGTK10ase, suggesting destabilization of CGTase by poly-lysine fusion and immobilization onto a cation exchanger. Maximum -CD productivity of 539.4 g l⁻¹ h⁻¹ was obtained with 2% soluble starch solution which was constantly fed at a flow rate of 4.0 ml min⁻¹ (D = 240 h⁻¹) in a continuous operation mode of a packed-bed reactor. The operational half-life of the packed-bed enzyme reactor was estimated 12 days at 25 °C and pH 6.0.     

Construction of chimeric cyclodextrin glucanotransferases from Bacillus circulans A11 and Paenibacillus macerans IAM1243 and analysis of their product specificity

Three DNA fragments of 7919 base pairs containing genes for beta-cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (CGTase, EC 2.4.1.19), an iron III dicitrate transport protein-like protein and a partial coding sequence for putative ferrichrome ABC transporter from Bacillus circulans A11 were cloned and sequenced (GenBank Accession AF302787). The DNA sequence contained a CGTase open reading frame of 2139 base pairs, which encoded a polypeptide of 713 amino acid residues. The signal peptide constituted the N-terminal 27 amino acid residues. The amino acid sequence was highly homologous to that of Bacillus sp. 1011 with 98.7% identity. The cloned CGTase gene contained its own promoter that directed the expression of the gene in Escherichia coli host cells. Chimeric construction against the alpha-CGTase from B. macerans IAM1243 was carried out by means of three created restriction sites, XhoI, SpeI, and MfeI, introduced by mutagenesis in between domains A/B and C, C and D, and D and E, respectively, and the NdeI site within the domains A/B. The various chimeras with different combinations of domains and part of domains A/B were analyzed for their dextrinizing and CD-forming activities. Their activities were of three groups: chimeras with no dextrinizing and cyclization activities, chimeras with only dextrinizing activity, and chimeras with both dextrinizing and cyclization activities. Two chimeras in the latter group showed altered product specificity. The results located the amino acid segment essential for the product specificity at the C-terminal half of domains A/B. Further, the function of domains C and D in positioning domain E in the correct orientation and proximity to domains A/B is implicated.     

利用高效阴离子色谱快速检测筛选环糊精糖基转移酶产生菌>

利用高效阴离子色谱快速直接地检测微生物发酵液中的环糊精成分,尤其是大环环糊精的组成,进而创造了一种能快速准确地从土壤中筛选产环糊精糖基转移酶菌种的方法。共分离了149个产胞外淀粉水解酶的微生物菌株,利用高效阴离子交换色谱共检测了其中11株菌,其中6株主要产CD6 ,5株主要产CD7,主要产CD8的没有。在直接鉴定产生环糊精糖基转移酶菌株的过程中,也可以定量检测各种环糊精包括大环糊精（CD大于8）的含量。     

Effect of different substrates and their preliminary treatment on cyclodextrin production

Summary Various kinds of substrates were tested for cyclodextrin production with cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (CGTase) from Bacillus megaterium. The enzyme formed cyclodextrin from different kinds of starch, dextrins, amylose, and amylopectin. However, the highest degree of conversion was obtained from starch. Corn starch appeared to be the best substrate – the cyclodextrin yield was 50.9%. The effect of molecular mass and preliminary treatment of starch with α-amylase on the CD yield was investigated. It was proved that CGTase preferred native starch with high molecular mass and low dextrose equivalent. The preliminary treatment with α-amylase occurred to be inefficient and unnecessary since it did not lead to an increase in the CD yield. Some of the substrates were treated with pullulanase. The effect of debranching was highest in the case of corn starch: the cyclodextrin yield increased by 10%.     

环糊精葡萄糖基转移酶钙离子结合位点结构与功能分析

通过多重序列比对和晶体结构分析发现,钙离子结合位点CaⅠ和CaⅡ普遍存在于环糊精葡萄糖基转移酶(CGT酶)中,且两个位点处氨基酸残基具有较高的保守性,而钙离子结合位点CaⅢ仅存在于少数CGT酶中．此外,研究发现,钙离子结合位点可能与CGT酶的环化活力、热稳定性和产物特异性密切相关．     

亚位点?7处突变对碱性芽胞杆菌CGT酶产物特异性的影响

为了研究来源于碱性芽胞杆菌的γ-环糊精葡萄糖基转移酶(CGT酶)具有较高产物特异性的作用机理,对其氨基酸序列和模拟结构进行了分析,确定其亚位点7处氨基酸的缺失可能影响其产物特异性。运用重叠PCR的方法,在其亚位点7处添加缺失的6个氨基酸,造成插入突变。将突变基因与pET-20b(+)连接并在大肠杆菌BL21(DE3)中表达。以可溶性淀粉为底物进行酶转化,HPLC分析转化产物中的环糊精含量。结果表明,相对于野生型γ-CGT酶,突变酶转化生成的3种环糊精中,γ-环糊精所占的比例从76.0%降至12.5%,α-、β-环糊精分别从8.7%和15.2%提高至37.5%和50%。分析其可能机理为:与α-、β-CGT酶相比,野生型γ-CGT酶的亚位点7处缺失6个氨基酸,该构象为葡萄糖的结合提供了更大的空间,从而更适合γ-环糊精的生成;而在其亚位点7处插入6个氨基酸,造成插入突变后,葡萄糖链结合的空间变小,这种构象不利于γ-环糊精的生成。     

Organic solvent and pH induced alteration of product specificity of CGTase

Cyclodextrin glucanotransferase [CGTase, E.C.2.4.1.19] is an extracellular enzyme, which catalyzes the formation of α−, β−, γ− CDs from starch. Their proportions of formations depend on enzyme sources and reaction conditions. To understand what determines the product specificity of CGTases, we examined the alteration of product specificity of CGTase fromBacillus macerans by organic solvents and pH. At acidic pH range less than pH 6 where the enzyme was unstable, the ratio of α−/β-CD production was increased 4 times more than that at neutral pH range. As we increased the concentration of 2-butanol, α−/β-CD ratio was proportionally increased but/ratio remained constant. The α−/β-CD ratio of products was increased in the reaction media which yielded low products.     

β-环糊精葡基转移酶的纯化方法及酶学性质的研究

β-环糊精葡基转移酶的粗酶液应用酚酞分光光度法测得该酶的环化活性为11.79U/mL。该粗酶液先经过淀粉-酒精沉淀或淀粉-硫酸铵沉淀初步纯化,然后经Sephacryl S-100凝胶层析后,比活力分别提高了16、21、50倍,由原来的11.44U/mg蛋白质增加到572.67U/mg蛋白质,回收率分别为72.4%、66.4%、40.9%,经SDS-PAGE电泳显示为单一的蛋白带,酶的分子量约为70kDa。酶学性质研究表明该酶的最适pH和最适温度分别为6.0和60℃,在pH6.0~10.0范围内,55℃以下保温30min基本保持稳定。纯化后的β-环糊精葡基转移酶的环化活性每克相当于35727U。     

The evolution of cyclodextrin glucanotransferase product specificity

Cyclodextrin glucanotransferases (CGTases) have attracted major interest from industry due to their unique capacity of forming large quantities of cyclic α-(1,4)-linked oligosaccharides (cyclodextrins) from starch. CGTases produce a mixture of cyclodextrins from starch consisting of 6 (α), 7 (β) and 8 (γ) glucose units. In an effort to identify the structural factors contributing to the evolutionary diversification of product specificity amongst this group of enzymes, we selected nine CGTases from both mesophilic, thermophilic and hyperthermophilic organisms for comparative product analysis. These enzymes displayed considerable variation regarding thermostability, initial rates, percentage of substrate conversion and ratio of α-, β- and γ-cyclodextrins formed from starch. Sequence comparison of these CGTases revealed that specific incorporation and/or substitution of amino acids at the substrate binding sites, during the evolutionary progression of these enzymes, resulted in diversification of cyclodextrin product specificity. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. Hans Leemhuis acknowledges financial support from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO).     

环糊精糖基转移酶产物专一性改造：难题与挑战

生产环糊精所必需的环糊精糖基转移酶与其产物专一性进化研究已经成为当今的研究热点。这项研究中的进展不仅会使环糊精糖基转移酶的应用取得突破结果,还会对其它酶的改造提供帮助。目前,人们对这类酶的性质已经有了较为深入的认识,但还存在着一些尚未解决的问题,如酶产物专一性的决定因素尚未系统阐明等。通过对环糊精糖基转移酶各个方面,尤其是其产物专一性进化方面研究的回顾,指出并分析了研究中尚未解决的问题,并对将来这一研究领域的前景进行了展望。