Mitochondrial HVI sequence variation in Anatolian hares (Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778)

Variability and phylogenetic relationships of sequences of the hypervariable domain I (HVI) of the mitochondrial DNA was studied in 46 brown hares (Lepus europaeus) from Anatolia, to test the hypotheses that (i) hares from several islands off the Anatolian coast and from Cyprus are phylogenetically close to mainland Anatolian hares, (ii) Anatolian hare sequence variability is higher than that of typical European brown hares, and to iii) infer possible Anatolian source populations of hares from some islands in the eastern Mediterranean. Neighbor joining and Maximum Parsimony analyses revealed reciprocal monophyly for sequences from Anatolia, the considered eastern Mediterranean islands off the Anatolian coast, Cyprus, and those sequences published earlier form NE Greece that were supposed to originate from earlier immigration via the late-Pleistocene/early-Holocene land bridge that connected SE Europe and W Anatolia (Kasapidis et al., 2005. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 34, 55–66). A high sequence idiosyncrasy was found among the Anatolian samples. Almost all approaches to compare variability between Anatolian and the downloaded European sequence data indicated higher sequence diversity in Anatolia, in accordance with earlier findings for allozyme loci. Network and principal coordinate analyses of the Anatolian sequences and those from the islands off the Anatolian coast as well as the Anatolian-type NE Greek sequences suggested high mitochondrial gene exchange among local populations in Anatolia with little effect of possible geographic barriers, and did not provide clues for tracing possible origins of island populations.     

Systematics and evolution of arctic-alpine Arabis alpina (Brassicaceae) and its closest relatives in the eastern Mediterranean

? Premise of the study: The high mountains in southern Anatolia and the eastern Mediterranean are assumed to play a major role as a primary center of genetic diversity and species richness in Eurasia. We tested this hypothesis by focusing on the widespread perennial arctic-alpine Arabis alpina and its sympatrically distributed closest relatives in the eastern Mediterranean. ? Methods: Plastid (trnL intron, trnL-F intergenic spacer) and nuclear (ITS) DNA sequence analysis was used for phylogenetic reconstruction. Broad-scale plastid haplotype analyses were conducted to infer ancestral biogeographic patterns. ? Key results: Five Arabis species, identified from the eastern Mediterranean (Turkey mainland and Cyprus), evolved directly and independently from A. alpina, leaving Arabis alpina as a paraphyletic taxon. These species are not affected by hybridization or introgression, and species divergence took place at the diploid level during the Pleistocene. ? Conclusions: Pleistocene climate fluctuations produced local altitudinal range-shifts among mountain glacial survival areas, resulting not only in the accumulation of intraspecific genotype diversity but also in the formation of five local species. We also show that the closest sister group of Arabis alpina consists exclusively of annuals/winter annuals and diverged prior to Pleistocene climatic fluctuations during the colonization of the lowland Mediterranean landscape. These findings highlight that Anatolia is not only a center of species richness but also a center for life-history diversification.     

Palaeoclimatic changes explain Anatolian mountain frog evolution: a test for alternating vicariance and dispersal events

Holarctic biodiversity has been influenced by climatic fluctuations since the Pliocene. Asia Minor was one of the major corridors for postglacial invasions in the Palearctic. Today this area is characterized by an extraordinarily rich fauna with close affiliation to European, Asian and Indo-African biota. However, exact scenarios of range expansion and contraction are lacking. Using a phylogeographical approach we (i). identify monophyletic lineages among Anatolian mountain frogs and (ii). derive a spatio-temporal hypothesis for the invasion process in Anatolia. We sequenced 540 bp of the mitochondrial 16S rRNA gene from 40 populations of mountain frogs from Anatolia, the Elburz Mountains and the Caucasus. Our samples comprise all known species and subspecies: Rana macrocnemis macrocnemis, R. m. tavasensis, R. m. pseudodalmatina, R. camerani and R. holtzi. They include the type localities of four of these taxa. We used a nested clade analysis (NCA) to infer historical and recurrent events that account for the observed geographical distribution of haplotypes. None of the extant species is monophyletic. Based on a molecular clock calibration using homologous sequences of Western Palearctic water frogs of the same genus, we estimated that a basic radiation into three lineages c. 2 Mya was followed by several dispersal and fragmentation events. The geographical distribution of resident and widespread haplotypes allows us to infer and date scenarios of range expansion and fragmentation that are aligned with dramatic climatic oscillations that have occurred during the last 600000 years. Consequently, Pliocene and Pleistocene climatic oscillations triggered the evolution of Anatolian mountain frogs through an interplay of vicariance and dispersal events.     

Patterns of polymorphism and gene flow of gender-associated mitochondrial DNA lineages in European mussel populations

Mussels of the genus Mytilus have two types of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). The M type is transmitted paternally and the F type is transmitted maternally. RFLP analysis is used to assess phylogenetic relationships and nucleotide diversity and divergence for both mtDNA genomes in European populations of M. edulis and Atlantic and Mediterranean forms of M. galloprovincialis. Ten restriction endonucleases were used to assay variation in regions of the ND2 and COIII genes for a total of 77 individuals. F and M genomes show a concordant phylogenetic split into two major divergent clades, one specific to Mediterranean M. galloprovincialis and the other containing haplotypes from the three taxa. For both genomes, the geographical distribution of mtDNA variation suggests: (i) extensive levels of mtDNA introgression; (ii) asymmetric mtDNA gene flow from Atlantic to Mediterranean populations; and (iii) recurrent historical hybridization events. Significantly higher mtDNA diversity and divergence are observed for the M than F genome in all three Mytilus taxa, although the evolutionary forces responsible for these differences cannot be resolved. The extensive mtDNA gene flow between European Mytilus taxa conflicts with the restricted mtDNA introgression observed in American mussels , implying geographical variation in the nature of nuclear/mtDNA interactions regulating biparental inheritance.     

High microsatellite and mitochondrial diversity in Anatolian native horse breeds shows Anatolia as a genetic conduit between Europe and Asia

The horse has been a food source, but more importantly, it has been a means for transport. Its domestication was one of the crucial steps in the history of human civilization. Despite the archaeological and molecular studies carried out on the history of horse domestication, which would contribute to conservation of the breeds, the details of the domestication of horses still remain to be resolved. We employed 21 microsatellite loci and mitochondrial control region partial sequences to analyse genetic variability within and among four Anatolian native horse breeds, Ayvac?k Pony, Malakan Horse, H?n?s Horse and Canik Horse, as well as samples from indigenous horses of unknown breed ancestry. The aims of the study were twofold: first, to produce data from the prehistorically and historically important land bridge, Anatolia, in order to assess its role in horse domestication and second, to analyse the data from a conservation perspective to help the ministry improve conservation and management strategies regarding native horse breeds. Even though the microsatellite data revealed a high allelic diversity, 98% of the genetic variation partitioned within groups. Genetic structure did not correlate with a breed or geographic origin. High diversity was also detected in mtDNA control region sequence analysis. Frequencies of two haplogroups (HC and HF) revealed a cline between Asia and Europe, suggesting Anatolia as a probable connection route between the two continents. This first detailed genetic study on Anatolian horse breeds revealed high diversity among horse mtDNA haplogroups in Anatolia and suggested Anatolia’s role as a conduit between the two continents. The study also provides an important basis for conservation practices in Turkey.     

Mitochondrial DNA variation in Pacific capelin (Mallotus villosus catervarius) from the Sea of Okhotsk, inferred from PCR-RFLP analysis

Four population samples of Pacific capelin Mallotus villosus catervarius (Pennant, 1784) from geographically distant localities in the Sea of Okhotsk, Tauy Bay and the eastern coast of the Sakhalin Island, were examined using PCR-RFLP analysis of three mitochondrial DNA regions (A8/A6/COIII/ND3, ND3/ND4L/ND4, and ND5/ND6). The nucleotide divergence of mtDNA sequences among the samples, as well as the analysis of geographic heterogeneity of the haplotype frequencies and quantitative estimation of genetic differentiation performed by means of AMOVA, showed that the samples examined belonged to one panmictic population. Genealogic analysis of the mtDNA variation structure was carried out. It was demonstrated that the high level of haplotype diversity (0.9639 +/- 0.00015) along with the low level of nucleotide diversity (0.003818 +/- 0.0000003) pointed to the exponential rate of population growth of the capelin from the Sea of Okhotsk, which rather recently in its evolutionary history faced the bottleneck effect.     

Genetic diversity of Garra rufa Heckel, 1843 (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) in Anatolia

In the present study, mitochondrial DNA polymerase chain reaction-restriction-fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) and nuclear DNA inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) assays were used to assess the phylogenetic and phylogeographic relationships among Garra rufa samples from Anatolia. The complete mtDNA NADH 3/4 dehydrogenase (ND-3/4) gene amplified by PCR was digested with eight restriction enzymes. These enzymes produced 20 composite haplotypes for G. rufa populations. All the mtDNA haplotypes detected were highly diverged from each other and each lineage had a unique genetic profile. The evaluation of mtDNA PCR-RFLP data coupled with geological history of Anatolia indicated a deep genetic divergence among the mtDNA haplotypes of G. rufa populations from drainages of the Mediterranean and Persian Gulf, suggesting an early isolation of Tigris-Euphrates with Orontes river and other rivers draining into the Mediterranean Sea. In general, data from both mtDNA and nDNA were congruent.     

Molecular phylogenetics and historical biogeography among salamandrids of the "true" salamander clade: rapid branching of numerous highly divergent lineages in Mertensiella luschani associated with the rise of Anatolia

Phylogenetic relationships among salamandrids of the "true" salamander clade are investigated using 2019 aligned base positions (713 parsimony informative) of 20 mitochondrial DNA sequences from the genes encoding ND1 (subunit one of NADH dehydrogenase), tRNA(Ile), tRNA(Gln), tRNA(Met), ND2, tRNA(Trp), tRNA(Ala), tRNA(Asn), tRNA(Cys), tRNA(Tyr), and COI (subunit I of cytochrome c oxidase), plus the origin for light-strand replication (O(L)) between the tRNA(Asn) and the tRNA(Cys) genes. Parsimony analysis produces a robust phylogenetic estimate for the relationships of the major groups of "true" salamanders. Strong support is provided for the sister taxon relationship of Chioglossa and Mertensiella caucasica and for the placement of Salamandra and Mertensiella luschani as sister taxa. These relationships suggest two vicariant events between Europe and Anatolia caused by the formation of seaways in the Mediterranean Basin. Molecular divergence indicates an Early Miocene separation of Chioglossa and M. caucasica and a Late Miocene separation of Salamandra and M. luschani. The traditional phylogenetic hypothesis of a monophyletic Mertensiella is statistically rejected, indicating that southwestern and northeastern Anatolian populations have separate historical biogeographic origins. Therefore, we recommend placement of M. luschani in the genus Salamandra. Within M. luschani, six highly divergent lineages showing 7.6 to 10.1% pairwise sequence divergence are identified. Tests using four-taxon subsamples suggest that these lineages diverged nearly simultaneously in the Late Miocene, approximately 6 to 8 million years ago, when extensive uplifting of Anatolia occurred in response to the Arabian collision.     

Mitochondrial DNA variation in Pacific capelin (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Mallotus villosus catervarius</Emphasis>) from the Sea of Okhotsk,inferred from PCR-RFLP analysis

Four population samples of Pacific capelin Mallotus villosus catervarius (Pennat, 1784) from geographically distant localities in the Sea of Okhotsk, Tauy Bay and the eastern coast of the Sakhalin Island, were examined using PCR-RFLP analysis of three mitochondrial DNA regions (A8/A6/COIII/ND3, ND3/ND4L/ND4, and ND5/ND6). The nucleotide divergence of mtDNA sequences among the samples, as well as the analysis of geographic heterogeneity of the haplotype frequencies and quantitative estimation of genetic differentiation performed by means of AMOVA, showed that the samples examined belonged to one panmictic population. Genealogic analysis of the mtDNA variation structure was carried out. It was demonstrated that the high level of haplotype diversity (0.9639 ± 0.00015) along with the low level of nucleotide diversity (0.003818 ± 0.0000003) pointed to the exponential rate of population growth of the capelin from the Sea of Okhotsk, which rather recently in its evolutionary history faced the bottleneck effect.     

Phylogeography of Troglophilus (Orthoptera: Troglophilinae) based on Anatolian members of the genus: radiation of an old lineage following the Messinian

Active tectonic history of the Eastern Mediterranean, especially around Aegean area, through the Neogene led to interesting radiation patterns of animal lineages, allowing intriguing biogeographical hypotheses to be tested. Descendants of the ancestral stock in the Miocene Aegean Plate presently occur in the Anatolia, Aegean islands and the Balkan Penninsula. Troglophilus (Orthoptera, Rhaphidophoridae, Troglophilinae) is such a genus represented in these areas with approximately 15 species. The present study addresses the phylogeography of the genus, with a special emphasis on its Anatolian members, aiming to test the biogeographical patterns suggested for this area using mitochondrial [cytochome oxidase I (COI)] and nuclear (ITS1‐5.8S–ITS2) markers. Data matrices obtained from sequences of COI and ITS1‐5.8S–ITS2 were used for phylogenetic analyses using Dolichopoda lycia and Dolichopoda sbordonii as outgroups. All sets of the analyses suggested monophyly of the Anatolian haplotypes, although they are not congruent in revealing their relationships. Anatolian haplotypes constituted three main phylogroups in trees calculated from a matrix of short COI sequences: the ECMA (corresponding to the Eastern part of coastal Mediterranean Anatolia); the CWMA (from the Central and Western part of Mediterranean Anatolia); and NA (from Northern Anatolia). Trees obtained using longer sequences resulted in only two phylogroups, namely ECMA and CWMA + NA. The trees based on the ITS1‐5.8S–ITS2 data matrix supported monophyly of Anatolian phylogroups. BEAST analysis of the COI estimated the time to most recent common ancestor for Dolichopoda and Troglophilus as 10.8 Mya, to that for the Anatolian + Balkan Troglophilus as 7.2 Mya, and to that for the Anatolian Troglophilus as 6.3 Mya. BEAST analysis of ITS1–ITS2 intron regions is largely congruent with that of COI. From these results, several conclusions were drawn. First, the divergence of Dolichopoda and Troglophilus possibly started with the opening of the Mid‐Aegean Trench in the Tortonian. Second, Troglophilus possibly originated from an ancestral stock in the old Aegean Plate. It later diverged as Anatolian and Balkan lineages and, possibly, the Cretan population may be regarded the third lineage. Divergence within the Anatolian lineage is estimated to have occurred through the Pliocene and Pleistocene, although before the last four glacial periods in the late Pleistocene. Additionally, the northern Anatolian Troglophilus appears to originate from the dispersal of an ancestral stock from a mountainous lineage through the Taurus Way. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 108 , 335–348.     

Y DNA and mitochondrial lineages in European and Asian populations of the brown hare (Lepus europaeus)

Both the Cytb gene of mtDNA and Y chromosome markers were studied in a relatively large sample of brown hares (L. europaeus) from Europe and Anatolia (Turkey and Israel), together with other seven Lepus species, in order to enable comparative analysis of possible sex-specific gene flow. Furthermore, Y chromosome markers were compared with data from biparentally inherited markers in an attempt to understand whether or not their pattern of distribution was congruent with that of allozymes or whether they rather matched mtDNA phylogenies, with which they share uniparental inheritance. Consistent with the general observation, levels of interspecific genetic variability were very low for the Y chromosome markers compared with mtDNA. Moreover, lack of interspecific variation for the Y-DNA studied within Lepus genus rendered these markers improper for any further phylogenetic analysis. With the highest nucleotide diversity in Anatolia compared with Europe, both marker systems confirmed an unbroken species history in Anatolia, corroborated the hypothesis of continuous gene flow from Anatolia's neighbouring regions, and supported the idea of a quick postglacial colonization followed by expansion of the species in large parts of Europe. Phylogenetic analysis under mtDNA revealed the existence of four different haplogroups with a well defined distribution across Europe and Anatolia. Both genetic systems supported the deep separation of Anatolian and European lineages of L. europaeus. Nevertheless, Anatolian Y-DNA lineages extended across a longer geographic distance in south-eastern Europe than Anatolian mtDNA haplotypes, probably as a result of higher female philopatry that makes mtDNA introgression more difficult in brown hares.     

Evolutionary history of the greater white-toothed shrew (Crocidura russula) inferred from analysis of mtDNA, Y, and X chromosome markers

We investigate the evolutionary history of the greater white-toothed shrew across its distribution in northern Africa and mainland Europe using sex-specific (mtDNA and Y chromosome) and biparental (X chromosome) markers. All three loci confirm a large divergence between eastern (Tunisia and Sardinia) and western (Morocco and mainland Europe) lineages, and application of a molecular clock to mtDNA divergence estimates indicates a more ancient separation (2.25 M yr ago) than described by some previous studies, supporting claims for taxonomic revision. Moroccan ancestry for the mainland European population is inconclusive from phylogenetic trees, but is supported by greater nucleotide diversity and a more ancient population expansion in Morocco than in Europe. Signatures of rapid population expansion in mtDNA, combined with low X and Y chromosome diversity, suggest a single colonization of mainland Europe by a small number of Moroccan shrews >38 K yr ago. This study illustrates that multilocus genetic analyses can facilitate the interpretation of species' evolutionary history but that phylogeographic inference using X and Y chromosomes is restricted by low levels of observed polymorphism.     

Phylogeographic analysis of Anatolian bats highlights the importance of the region for preserving the Chiropteran mitochondrial genetic diversity in the Western Palaearctic

Identification of intraspecific conservation units and incorporating the distribution of genetic diversity into management plans are crucial requirements for assessing effective protection strategies. This study investigates the phylogeographic structures of 33 bat species present in the Near East in order to evaluate the conservation implications of their intraspecific genetic diversity both at regional and large-scale levels. To compare Anatolian populations with the European ones, we utilized two commonly used mitochondrial markers, Cytb and ND1, and analysed them together with the available sequences from GenBank. The management requirements of the identified clades and their taxonomical relations were evaluated by analysing their distributions and the levels of their genetic differentiations. In 12 species and the large Myotis complex, we identified a total of 15 genetically distinct populations found in the Near East, some of which might represent biologically distinct taxa. Comparing the phylogeographic patterns of different taxa indicates that three regions, the Balkans, the Caucasus, and the southern Anatolia, harbour genetically divergent populations and should have higher priority in conservation practices. Considering that Turkey has one of the richest bat fauna in the Mediterranean region and the Anatolian populations of various species are genetically distinct, protecting populations in Turkey is critically important for preserving the genetic diversity of the bats in the Western Palaearctic. Both regional and large-scale conservation strategies, which incorporate the distribution of genetic diversity, should be assessed and further ecological studies are needed to clarify the taxonomic relations of the identified clades.     

The role of vicariance vs. dispersal in shaping genetic patterns in ocellated lizard species in the western Mediterranean

The schism between North Africa and Southern Europe caused by the opening of the Strait of Gibraltar and the consequent refilling of the Mediterranean basin at the end of Messinian salinity crisis (MSC), 5.33 million years ago, has been advocated as the main event shaping biogeographical patterns in the western Mediterranean as exemplified by the distribution of species and subspecies and genetic variation within the ocellated lizard group. To reassess the role of the MSC, partial sequences of three mitochondrial DNA genes (cytochrome b , 12S and 16S ribosomal RNA) and two nuclear genes (β-fibrinogen and C-mos) from species of the ocellated lizard group were analysed. Three alternative hypotheses were tested: that divergence was initiated (i) by post-MSC vicariance as the basin filled, (ii) when separate populations established either side of the strait by pre-MSC overseas dispersal, and (iii) by post-MSC overseas dispersal. The pattern and level of divergence detected clearly refute the post-MSC vicariance hypothesis, and support a model of divergence initiated by earlier overseas dispersal. Indeed, our best estimate is that the basal Euro-African divergence predates the MSC event by several million years. The estimated divergence times among the populations in former Miocene Mediterranean islands, the current Betic and Rifian mountains, from adjacent mainland populations suggest overseas dispersal for the former and overland dispersal, or perhaps vicariance, for the latter. These results suggest that the MSC may have played a much less important role in shaping the current western Mediterranean biogeographical patterns than might have been anticipated from the dramatic nature of the episode.     

Mitochondrial DNA phylogeny and morphological diversity in the genus Mastus (Beck, 1837): a study in a recent (Holocene) island group (Koufonisi, south-east Crete)

Three endemic Cretan land snail species of the genus Mastus (Beck, 1837) from the island group of Koufonisi (south-east Crete) and the eastern part of Crete, were studied by multivariate analysis of shell morphology and analysis of mtDNA sequences. The phylogeny of the populations studied and the processes effecting the genetic and morphological diversity of the species were investigated. Extremely high mtDNA sequence divergence was observed both within and between populations. The Cretan populations could not be distinguished morphologically, while the populations of the islets were more distinct. We argue that the active geological past of the area (including sea level changes) and the long-term presence of humans has produced a mixing up of Mastus populations leading to the accumulation of high divergence of mtDNA sequences on a small spatial scale. The limited morphological diversity and the distinct shell 'identity' of the islets' populations can be attributed to the selective pressures of the island group.  © 2003 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2003, 78, 383–399.     

Phylogeography of the pine processionary moth Thaumetopoea wilkinsoni in the Near East

Phylogeographic structure of the eastern pine processionary moth Thaumetopoea wilkinsoni was explored in this study by means of nested clade phylogeographic analyses of COI and COII sequences of mitochondrial DNA and Bayesian estimates of divergence times. Intraspecific relationships were inferred and hypotheses tested to understand historical spread patterns and spatial distribution of genetic variation. Analyses revealed that all T. wilkinsoni sequences were structured in three clades, which were associated with two major biogeographic events, the colonization of the island of Cyprus and the separation of southwestern and southeastern Anatolia during the Pleistocene. Genetic variation in populations of T. wilkinsoni was also investigated using amplified fragment length polymorphisms and four microsatellite loci. Contrasting nuclear with mitochondrial data revealed recurrent gene flow between Cyprus and the mainland, related to the long-distance male dispersal. In addition, a reduction in genetic variability was observed at both mitochondrial and nuclear markers at the expanding boundary of the range, consistent with a recent origin of these populations, founded by few individuals expanding from nearby localities. In contrast, several populations fixed for one single mitochondrial haplotype showed no reduction in nuclear variability, a pattern that can be explained by recurrent male gene flow or selective sweeps at the mitochondrial level. The use of both mitochondrial and nuclear markers was essential in understanding the spread patterns and the population genetic structure of T. wilkinsoni, and is recommended to study colonizing species characterized by sex-biased dispersal.     

Distribution of Tettigoniinae (Orthoptera, Tettigoniidae) bush-crickets in Turkey: the importance of the Anatolian Taurus Mountains in biodiversity and implications for conservation

The distribution of Tettigoniinae (Orthoptera, Tettigoniidae) specieswithin four phytogeographical provinces in Turkey is reviewed and presented onthe basis of field and collection studies during 1987–2001 andmiscellaneous data from previous literature. One hundred and sixty speciesbelonging to 28 genera have been recorded. The Anatolian species constituteapproximately 30% of the world-wide species of the subfamily, with a very highproportion (83%) being endemic or semi-endemic, nearly all of which arebrachypterous. Regarding the numbers of total and endemic species, theprovinces can be ordered as follows: Mediterranean > Irano-Anatolian >Euxin > Mesopotamia. Also, Anatolian Tettigoniinae have a very high rate ofendemism in each province; 84.1% in the Mediterranean, 78.1% in Irano-Anatolia,56.3% in Mesopotamia and 42.4% in Euxin. The two provinces in Anatolia havingthe greatest species diversity are also the two most mountainous provinces, soit is suggested that a primary factor in Tettigoniinae diversity is theAnatolian Taurus mountains. Finally, some conclusions are drawn on biodiversityand conservation of Tettigoniinae species in Anatolia and I have suggested 23species to be included in the 'IUCN Red List' under VU B2+ac.     

The Anatolian diagonal revisited: Testing the ecological basis of a biogeographic boundary

The Asian part of Turkey, i.e. Anatolia, is the region where three of the world’s 35 biodiversity hotspots meet, and interact: the Caucasus, Irano-Anatolian, and Mediterranean basin hotspots. One of the most distinctive biogeographic features that helps in understanding the biodiversity of Anatolia is the Anatolian diagonal, which has long been recognised as a biogeographic boundary between the central and eastern Anatolian floras and faunas, but the processes (i.e. historical, ecological or some combination of these) responsible for its origin and maintenance have not been well understood. The aim of this study was to assess whether the Anatolian diagonal corresponds with a significant environmental barrier. I used for this purpose ecological niche modelling and associated comparative metrics. First, I created virtual records in the Anatolian part of the Irano-Anatolian hotspot, and split these records into two groups: those occurring to the west and to the east of the Anatolian diagonal. Then, I examined whether the Anatolian diagonal is associated with a steep environmental gradient. It was found that the Anatolian diagonal is indeed associated with a steep environmental gradient, and therefore corresponds with a significant environmental barrier. This steep gradient associated with the Anatolian diagonal is mainly in temperature seasonality. The models did not cross-predict each other, either at the Last Glacial Maximum or at the present, suggesting that during at least the last glacial-interglacial cycle, many of these populations or taxa were excluded from the other side of the Anatolian diagonal by environmental rather than non-environmental reasons (i.e. dispersal, competition).     

Ecological diversity of the Eastern Mediterranean region of Turkey and its conservation

The Taurus Mountain range separates the central Anatolian steppe and the Eastern Mediterranean Region. The Amanos Mountains lie to the east, playing a significant role in forming this region which is strongly influenced by the Mediterranean Sea. Between the Taurus Mountains and the sea, there is a diversity of terrestrial, limnic and marine ecosystems. These contain a number of differing biotopes such as grassland above the timberline, evergreen and deciduous forests, scrubland, river beds, lagoons, coastal saltmarshes, coastal woodlands and sand dunes. Due to intensive land use, the ecological diversity is threatened, and so governmental and scientific bodies have combined resources to implement conservation measures. This paper emphasizes the importance of these conservation activities and discusses realistic proposals for conservation in the region.     

Contrasting phylogeographical patterns between mainland and island taxa of the Pinus luchuensis complex

Species whose geographical distribution encompasses both mainland and island populations provide an ideal system for examining isolation and genetic divergence. In this study, paternally transmitted chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) and maternally transmitted mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) were used to estimate population structure and phylogeography of Pinus luchuensis, a species found in eastern China (ssp. hwangshanensis), Taiwan (ssp. taiwanensis), and the Ryukyu Archipelago (ssp. luchuensis). Gene genealogies of both mtDNA and cpDNA reveal two major lineages. Molecular dating indicates that these lineages diverged before the colonization of P. luchuensis subspecies in Taiwan and the Ryukyu Archipelago. Both mtDNA and cpDNA show a lack of correspondence between molecular phylogeny and subspecies designation. Phylogeographical analysis suggests that paraphyly of the subspecies is the result of recent divergence rather than secondary contacts. In spite of the short divergence history of P. luchuensis on islands, the island populations show the same degree of genetic divergence as mainland populations. Low levels of genetic diversity in the mainland ssp. hwangshanensis suggest demographic bottlenecks. In contrast, the high heterogeneity of genetic composition for island populations is likely to be associated with a history of multiple colonization from the mainland. The spatial apportionment of organelle DNA polymorphisms is consistent with a pattern of stepwise colonization on island populations.