Redescription of the male and description of the female of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ixodes abrocomae</Emphasis> Lahille, 1916 (Acari: Ixodidae)

The male of Ixodes abrocomae Lahille, 1916 (Acari: Ixodidae) is redescribed and the female described for the first time from specimens collected on the rodents Abrothrix longipilis (Waterhouse), A. olivaceous (Waterhouse) and Phyllotis xanthopygus (Waterhouse) at Coquimbo, Chile. The males of I. abrocomae are peculiar in having the combination of the following features: length and width less than 2 mm and 1 mm, respectively; hypostome notched with two rows of stout denticles and several small internal denticles; article II of the palpi with two conspicuous dorsal setae; coxa I with two subequal spurs; coxae II–IV with a single spur plus an indication of a second spur; and a scutum with long, scattered hairs except for the glabrous postero-median field which reaches to the marginal fold. The females of I. abrocomae are peculiar in possessing a combination of: a pointed hypostome, with a 3/3 dentition of flared denticles; a long, narrow scutum with few ‘hairs’ and with punctations which are especially numerous in the posterior region; a triangular basis capituli, with oval porose areas lacking definitive borders and separated by the width of one area, and a sinuous posterior margin with small cornuae; one spur on coxae I–IV; and conspicuous setae on the interno-dorsal face of palpal article II and the ventral face of article I. Sequences of 16S rDNA were identical for male and female I. abrocomae, but differ by 3.8% and 5.5% from sequences of their closest relatives, I. stilesi Neumann, 1911 and I. sigelos Keirans, Clifford & Corwin, 1976, respectively. Characters enabling the separation of I. abrocomae from Ixodes spp. distributed in the southwestern Neotropics are presented. Records of I. abrocomae in different climatic areas and on different, widely distributed rodent hosts indicate that this species may be present beyond its known Chilean territorial range (Regions III and IV).     

A case of Amblyomma testudinarium tick bite in a Korean woman

A case of tick bite was found in the inguinal region of a 74-year-old Korean woman. She was attacked by the tick while working in her vegetable garden in the vicinity of mountain located in Suncheon City, the southern coastal area of the Korean Peninsula. On admission she complained of mild discomfort and itching around the bite area. The causative tick was 23 mm long and had slender pedipalps. The scutum was quite ornate and had eyes at the edge. The genital aperture was located anterior to the level of the coxa II. The spiracular plate was comma-shaped and the anus was surrounded posteriorly by the anal groove. The coxa I had subequal 2 spurs; the external one slightly larger. The spur of coxa IV was slightly longer than those of coxae II and III. The tarsus IV had 2 distinct subapical ventral spurs. It was identified as the fully engorged adult female of Amblyomma testudinarium. This is the first human case of Amblyomma bite in Korea.     

中国派盾螨科三新纪录属及三新种记述(蜱螨亚纲：革螨股)

记述派盾螨科3新种：武汉派盾螨Parholaspis wuhanensis sp.nov.,亚弧讷派螨Neparholaspis subarcuatus sp.nov.和湖北真派螨 Euparholaspulus hubeiensis sp.nov.。三属均为中国首次记录。     

Towards a diagnostic view of Hyalomma (Hyalomma) aegyptium (Acari,Ixodidae)

The diagnostic characters of larval, nymphal and adult Hyalomma aegyptium (L., 1758) based on specimens from the territory of most part of the area are given. In the diagnoses of immature stages, was used the characters, which were formerly tested by the author for diagnostics of other Hyalomma species occurring in the former USSR. Commonly used characters and those which were revealed by the author as useful for the majority of Euhyalomma Filippova, 1984 and Hyalommina Schulze, 1919 species, have been used in the diagnoses of male and female. Differential diagnosis of Hyalomma aegyptium. Female: genital orifice as wide arch with straight posterior margin (fig. 2, 5); vestibular part of vagina funnel-like, greatly swollen (fig. 2, 5); setae of alloscutum stick-like, tapering in apical one (figs 2, 3, 4); second segment of palps with proximal narrowing (figs 3, 1, 2); spurs of coxae I widely separated, triangular, wide, subequal in size (fig. 3, 5). Male: any grooves of conscutum absent, except short and pit-like cervical ones (fig. 4); punctation sparce and impressive (fig. 4); adenal shields short and wide, without inner branch, posterior part widened, anteromedian margin straight (fig. 5, 4); spurs of coxae I widely separated, triangular, wide, subequal in size (fig. 6, 5). Nymph: posteromedian setae of alloscutum stick-like and, as a rule, with indented apices (fig. 7, 2); spurs of coxae I large, median spur as equilateral triangle and shorter than lateral one (fig. 7, 8); spurs of coxae II-IV well developed, with acute apices (fig. 7, 8). Larva: posterior part of scutum (behind the eyes) heavy elongated, its apex straight, postero-lateral incisions weakly developed (fig. 8, 1); spurs of coxae I as equilateral triangle in shape and with rounded apices, spurs of coxae II-III very large (fig. 8, 5).     

Two new species of African Haemaphysalis ticks (Acari: Ixodidae), carnivore parasites of the H. (Rhipistoma) leachi group

Two new tick species belonging to the African Haemaphysalis (Rhipistoma) leachi subgroup, namely H. (R.) colesbergensis n. sp. and H. (R.) oliveri n. sp., are described. Haemaphysalis (R.) colesbergensis adults are easily differentiated from the other species of the H. (R.) leachi subgroup, including H. (R.) oliveri, by the spur on coxa IV, which is considerably longer than that on coxa III. The adults of the 2 new species are equal in size, but the dental formula of the hypostome of H. (R.) colesbergensis is 4/4 compared to 5/5 for H. (R.) oliveri. The dental formula of H. (R.) oliveri also distinguishes it from other ticks in the subgroup, namely H. (R.) leachi, H. (R.) elliptica, H. (R.) moreli, and H. (R.) punctaleachi (4/4 in these species), but not from H. (R.) paraleachi, which has a 5/5 dental arrangement. However, the average total length and width of H. (R.) oliveri males (2.47 x 1.20 mm) are considerably shorter and narrower than those of H. (R.) paraleachi males (3.81 x 1.79 mm). Similar differences in size apply to the females. Nymphs and larvae of H. (R.) colesbergensis and H. (R.) oliveri can be distinguished from those of other members of the H. (R.) leachi subgroup, as well as from each other, by a combination of the following characters: size and measurement ratios, length of posterodorsal and posteroventral spurs on palpal segment II, and number of denticles per file on the hypostome. Haemaphysalis (R.) colesbergensis is known only from South Africa, where it has been collected from domestic cats and dogs and medium-sized wild felids. Haemaphysalis (R.) oliveri is recorded only from Sudan, where it has been collected from small- to medium-sized wild felids and canids and an antelope. The hosts of the immature stages of H. (R.) colesbergensis are unknown, while nymphs of H. (R.) oliveri have been collected from rodents.     

The phylogenetic position of Ixodes stilesi Neumann, 1911 (Acari: Ixodidae): morphological and preliminary molecular evidences from 16S rDNA sequences

The female of Ixodes stilesi Neumann, 1911 (Acari Ixodidae) is redescribed and the male and nymph are described from specimens collected from Pudu puda (Molina) (Artiodactyla: Cervidae) in Chile. Both sexes of I. stilesi have characteristics of the subgenera Ixodes Latreille, 1795 and Ixodiopsis Filippova, 1957. The females of I. stilesi are peculiar in having the combination of the sinuous scutum outline, rounded porose areas with distinct borders separated by the width of one area, slender and long palpi, and two subequal spurs on coxa I. The male is unique in having a combination of a posteriorly wrinkled marginal folder, a basis capituli longer than wide, a non-crenulate hypostome toothed portion, two spurs on coxa II to IV and the presence of a pseudoscutum. The nymph of I. stilesi has blunt anterior and posterior processes on palpal article I (characteristics of the subgenus Ixodiopsis and some Pholeoixodes Schulze, 1942) and a wing-shaped basis capituli with a prominent triangular cornua. Phylogenetic analyses based on 16S mitochondrial rDNA sequences of 12 Neotropical and two Australian Ixodes species, plus three argasids, were carried out to clarify the position of I. stilesi. The results of phylogenetic analyses and morphological characters indicate a close relationships between I. stilesi and two other Neotropical species of uncertain subgeneric status, I. neuquenensis Ringuelet, 1947 and I. sigelos Keirans, Clifford & Corwin, 1976.     

Increases in leaf nitrogen concentration and leaf area did not enhance spur survival and return bloom in almonds (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Prunus dulcis</Emphasis> [Mill.] DA Webb)

Mature almond trees bear fruit mainly on short shoots called spurs, with only a small percentage of fruit produced laterally on long 1-year-old shoots. As a result, maintenance of large numbers of healthy spurs per tree is critical for fruit production. However, spurs that bear fruit have lower leaf area, leaf nitrogen content, and CO₂ assimilation rate than non-fruiting spurs. This has been correlated with reduced percentages of spur survival and return bloom the following season. Thus, we hypothesized that spur leaf area, and ultimately spur health could be enhanced through application of foliar sprays and soil nitrogen treatments that would enhance leaf nitrogen content and spur leaf area. To test our hypothesis, we selected almond trees exhibiting significant yield differences as a consequence of differential soil rates of nitrogen fertilization (N rate) for three prior years (140, 224, and 392 kg/ha). In each tree, three spur types [non-fruiting spurs (F0); spurs with one fruit (F1); spurs with two fruit (F2)] were selected on the east side of the canopy and tracked for one complete season (2011–2012). Four foliar treatments (nutrient replacement, nutrient replacement with biostimulant, nitrogen, and non-spray) were directly applied to individual spurs in each N rate in the spring of 2011 and characteristic such as leaf nitrogen, and fruit quality were recorded throughout the season. In winter of 2012, spur survival and return bloom were addressed through individual visual inspection of the tagged spurs. In this experiment, soil and foliar N treatments effectively increased spur leaf area, fruit, and leaf nitrogen concentration. In the high N treatment, the leaf nitrogen values exceeded the critical nitrogen concentration established for almond trees and the critical leaf area for spur survival and blooming thresholds established by past research in this area. However, none of these positive changes in leaf N or leaf area improved spur survival and/or return boom of any spur type. Indeed, survival and hull + shell weight tended to be lower in the population of fruiting spurs with the highest leaf area and leaf nitrogen concentration and the return bloom probabilities were always lower in fruiting spurs than in non-fruiting spurs, independent of the nitrogen rate. These results and the relationship between nitrogen rate and spur survival are discussed.     

The question of fluctuating asymmetry in the blacklegged tick Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae)

An analysis of fluctuating asymmetry was conducted on populations of the blacklegged tick Ixodes scapularis. The eight groups used in this study consisted of larvae and nymphs and males and females from the states of Minnesota, Massachusetts, Maryland, Missouri, North Carolina and Georgia and the F1 progenies of reciprocal crosses between ticks from Massachusetts and Georgia. Measurements included 16 larval, 19 nymphal, ten female and 12 male bilateral characters. Only five differences between the right and left bilateral characters had normal distributions with means of zero and differences in variances between the groups. These five characters included three setal lengths of the larvae, the spiracular plate length of females and the coxa I internal spur widths of males. Bivariate plots of character size ((R+L)/2) and asymmetry (R-L) showed no correlation. In the spiracular plate lengths of females and one of the setal lengths, ticks from Massachusetts had significantly less within-group variance than all the other groups. The only character in which fluctuating asymmetry was observed was the coxa I internal spur width of males, in which ticks from Minnesota, Missouri and North Carolina had significantly greater variance than the remaining groups; fluctuating asymmetry in this character may be explained by sexual selection. The cross progeny did not demonstrate any fluctuating asymmetry, as would be expected if the northern and southern forms of I. scapularis were true species. The virtual lack of fluctuating asymmetry in the characters used in this study further supports the conclusions of other studies which concluded that I. scapularis is a species with clinal variation and a broad geographic distribution.     

峰革赛螨重新描述（蜱螨亚纲：中气门目，胭螨科）

本文重新描述峰革赛螨Gamasellus montanus（Willmann,1936）成螨。     

Description of a new species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Amblyomma</Emphasis> Koch, 1844 (Acari: Ixodidae), parasite of deer (Artiodactyla: Cervidae) and wild pigs (Artiodactyla: Suidae) in the Philippines

Amblyomma anicornuta n. sp. (Acari: Ixodidae) is described based on adults and nymphs ex deer (Artiodactyla: Cervidae) and wild pigs (Artiodactyla: Suidae) from Luzon, Philippines. Adults of A. anicornuta n. sp. are similar to those of several Asian and Australasian species of Amblyomma Koch, 1844 with a 4/4 dental formula on the hypostome but can be distinguished by the colouration and pattern of punctations on the conscutum in the male and scutum in the female, the absence of a marginal groove on the conscutum in the male, the possession of long, thick, prominent setae on the alloscutum in the female, projections on anal valves and sclerotised ring around them in the male, a large median sclerite ventrally in the male, as well by the shape of the genital aperture in the female and the size and shape of spurs on coxae I–IV in both sexes. The nymph of A. anicornuta n. sp. is somewhat similar to that of A. babirussae Schulze, 1933 and A. geoemydae (Cantor, 1847) but can be distinguished by the colouration pattern on the scutum, the presence of dorsal cornua and the size of the spurs on coxae I–IV.     

Hawkmoth pollination of aerangoid orchids in Kenya, with special reference to nectar sugar concentration gradients in the floral spurs

The African orchid flora has a high proportion of species with long-spurred white flowers. Few data exist to test the prediction that this floral syndrome pattern reflects an important role for hawkmoth pollination in the evolution and ecology of these orchids. The pollination biology of five aerangoid orchid species (Rangaeris amaniensis, Aerangis brachycarpa, A. confusa, A. thomsonii, and A. kotschyana) was investigated in Kenya. Four of these have long spurs (>10 cm) and were pollinated by Agrius convolvuli and Coelonia fulvinotata. Aerangis confusa, which has relatively short spurs (ca. 4 cm), was pollinated by the short-tongued hawkmoths Hippotion celerio and Daphnis nerii. Nectar frequently filled the entire spur in some of the study species, even at anthesis. Sugar concentration of the nectar of four species was found to vary from ca. 1% at the mouth of the spur to 20% at the tip. Gradients were expressed more strongly in species with long, straight spurs. Species with spirally twisted spurs showed both steep and shallow nectar gradients. These gradients, previously unknown in plants, may function as a "sugar trail," enticing long-tongued hawkmoths to probe deeply into spurs without incurring the cost of filling an entire spur with concentrated nectar. In addition, the most concentrated nectar is kept out of reach of short-tongued pollinators.     

Pollinators and nectar robbers cause directional selection for large spur circle in Impatiens oxyanthera (Balsaminaceae)

Nectar spurs have an important role in floral evolution and plant–pollinator coadaptation. The flowers of some species possess spurs curving into a circle. However, it is unclear whether spur circle diameter is under direct selection pressure from different sources, such as pollinators and nectar robbers. In this study, we quantified selection on some floral traits, such as spur circle diameter in Impatiens oxyanthera (Balsaminaceae) using phenotypic selection analysis and compared the relative importance of pollinators and nectar robbers as selective agents using mediation analysis. The study showed that pollinators caused significant selection on corolla length, spur curvature and spur circle diameter while nectar robbers only imposed strong selection on spur circle diameter. Pollinators favored flowers with large corolla, curly spurs and large spur circle while nectar robbers preferred flowers with small spur circle. More pollinator visits resulted in higher female reproductive success, while robbery reduced female fitness. Conflicting selection on spur traits from pollinators and nectar robbers was not found. Mediation analysis showed that selection on floral traits through nectar robbing was stronger than selection through pollination. The results suggested that pollinators and nectar robbers jointly mediated the directional selection for large spur circle, and nectar robbers caused stronger selection than pollinators on floral traits.     

Effects of fire frequency on oak litter decomposition and nitrogen dynamics

Rapid speciation within some plant families has been attributed to the evolution of floral spurs and to the effect of spur length on plant reproductive success. The flowers of Impatiens capensis (jewelweed) possess a long, curved spur in which nectar is produced and stored. Spur length and curvature varies among plants within one population. Here I document that spur shape is variable in natural populations, variation within plants is less than variation among plants, and spur shape is correlated with components of female and male reproductive success. The apparent natural selection is weakly directional in 1 of 2 years, with greatest seed production and pollen removal occurring in flowers with the greatest spur curvature. Bee pollinator visit length is longest at flowers with highly curved spurs, and they leave less nectar in these spurs than in flowers with straighter spurs. Spur angle evolution may be limited, at least in part, by opposing selection by nectar-robbers who prefer to visit flowers with greater spur curvature. Other factors that might contribute to the maintenance of spur angle variation are temporal variation in the strength of selection and potential genetic correlations of spur shape with other traits under selection.     

Experimental Studies on Male and Female Reproductive Success: Effects of Variation in Spur Length and Pollinator Activity on Platanthera mandarinorum ssp. hachijoensis (Orchidaceae)

Abstract Field experiments on an orchid, Platanthera mandarinorum ssp. hachijoensis , were carried out to investigate the effects of variations in spur (nectary) length and pollinator activity on reproductive success (RS) of individual plants. Experiments comprised two kinds of treatments: spur shortening and bagging to restrict pollinator activity. Plants with a natural spur lengths range show nearly equal RS, whereas plants with shortened spurs had decreased RS proportional to spur length reduction. Pollinaria attachment (a measure of male RS) to the pollinators seems to demand stricter morphological correspondence than pollen receipt (female RS). Decrease of male and female RSs in spur-treatments was smaller in the case of high pollinator activity than low pollinator activity. Results of the bagging experiments indicated that female RS was greater than male RS in cases of high pollen carryover. These facts suggest that (1) fecundity selection operates more intensely on both male and female functions in the case of low pollinator activity and more intensely on the male function in the case of high pollen carryover, and (2) individuals with different spur lengths in natural populations have nearly equal probabilities of RS after excluding the extreme variants through the reduction of male RS.     

Haemaphysalis (Garnhamphysalis) rusae (Ixodoidea: Ixodidae): identity, deer and pig hosts, and distribution in Luzon and Mindanao

Haemaphysalis (Garnhamphysalis) rusae Kohls, previously known only from three male ticks from Mindanao, Philippines, is a seldom collected but probably common parasite of the Philippine deer, Cervus (Rusa) philippinus, and wild pig, Sus celebensis philippensis, in forests of Mindanao and Luzon. A single female taken from a wallaby in Papua New Guinea is presumed to result from an introduction with the Philippine deer. The male, originally briefly described, is redescribed to provide criteria for comparing this species and other members of the subgenus Garnhamphysalis. The female and nymph are described for the first time. The male H. (G.) rusae and H. (G.) calvus Nuttall and Warburton are structurally quite similar, differing only in palpal length:breadth ratio and size of the trochanter IV spur. Females differ more widely in the presence (rusae) or absence (calvus) of a large retrograde spur extending from the posteroventral margin of palpal segment 2. Conversely, qualitative and quantitative structural differences between most Haemaphysalis species are greater in males than in females.     

Scent of a Woman – The Effect of Female Presence on Sexual Cannibalism in an Orb-Weaving Spider (Araneae: Araneidae)

Post-mating sexual cannibalism occurs as a regular element of mating behaviour in a number of spider species. Frequencies of cannibalism, however, are highly variable between and within species. In Argiope bruennichi , males apparently differ in their motivation to escape a female attack but causes for this variability are unknown. We observed that the probability of sexual cannibalism is positively correlated with male age, i.e. the number of days that passed between male maturation and copulation. The mating season in this species is short with 3–4 wk and males mostly mature days before the females, whose maturation phase is longer. Consequently, as the season progresses, the availability of virgin females increases, quickly reaches a peak and then rapidly declines. In addition, the age of still unmated males increases with the season and both of these factors can potentially affect the degree of sexual cannibalism. To separate these factors, males were collected in their penultimate stage and kept until mating either with or without contact to female pheromones. Thereby, we experimentally manipulated the male's perception of female presence. Within each treatment, we formed three male age groups: (1) 2–6 d, (2) 12–16 d and (3) 22–28 d. Our results demonstrate that the probability of cannibalism was independent of male age but was explained by the treatment of males: males exposed to virgin female pheromones were significantly more likely to be cannibalised than males that were kept without female pheromones. This suggests that males change their reproductive strategy according to perceived mating prospects.     

A role for sperm in regulation of egg-laying in the Nematode <Emphasis Type="Italic">C. elegans</Emphasis>

Background  

In insects and in mammals, male sperm and seminal fluid provide signaling factors that influence various aspects of female physiology and behavior to promote reproductive success and to compete with other males. It is less apparent how important such signaling is in the context of a self-fertile hermaphrodite species. We have addressed this question in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, which can reproduce either by hermaphrodite self-fertilization or by male-hermaphrodite mating.