Molecular diversity and temporal variation of picoeukaryotes in two Arctic fjords,Svalbard

Picoeukaryotes (protists <3 μm) form an important component of Arctic marine ecosystems, although knowledge of their diversity and ecosystem functioning is limited. In this study, the molecular diversity and autotrophic biomass contribution of picoeukaryotes from January to June 2009 in two Arctic fjords at Svalbard were examined using 18S environmental cloning and size-fractioned chlorophyll a measurements. A total of 62 putative picoeukaryotic phylotypes were recovered from 337 positive clones. Putative picoeukaryotic autotrophs were mostly limited to one species: Micromonas pusilla, while the putative heterotrophic picoeukaryote assemblage was more diverse and dominated by uncultured marine stramenopiles (MAST) and marine alveolate groups. One MAST-1A phylotype was the only phylotype to be found in all clone libraries. The diversity of picoeukaryotes in general showed an inverse relationship with total autotrophic biomass, suggesting that the conditions dominating during the peak of the spring bloom may have a negative impact on picoeukaryote diversity. Picoplankton could contribute more than half of total autotrophic biomass before and after the spring bloom and benefited from an early onset of the growth season, whereas larger cells dominated the bloom itself.     

Distribution and diversity of sipunculan fauna in high Arctic fjords (west Svalbard)

Sipuncula is a relatively species poor and generally rarely investigated phylum; nonetheless, it may play a considerable role in the ecosystem. During this study sipunculan species distribution patterns in four fjords of west Spitsbergen (Kongsfjorden, Hornsund, Isfjorden and van Mijenfjorden) were examined. Material was collected during ten cruises undertaken from 1997 to 2006. A total of 381 samples were taken at 132 stations located in the four fjords and, a total number of 920 sipunculans specimens were found in 114 of those samples. The highest sipunculan species richness was observed in Hornsund (six species), followed by Kongsfjorden and Isfjorden (five species in each fjord). Sipunculan fauna in all fjords was strongly dominated by Golfingia vulgaris (80% of all sipunculan individuals in Kongsfjorden), and Golfingia margaritacea (84% in van Mijenfjorden and 40% in Hornsund) or Nephasoma diaphanes (54% in Isfjorden). Locally, sipunculans were found in high densities (max. 62 ind. 0.1 m⁻² and up to 11% of macrobenthic densities) and biomass (max. 110.87 g 0.1 m⁻² and up to 80% of total fauna biomass). At such sites, sipunculans may play an important role in bioturbation of sediments and as a food source for higher trophic levels. Sipunculans did not occur within close proximity of the glacier where they might be eliminated due to high sedimentation rate and low amounts of organic matter. Because of their importance in benthic systems, a need to include sipunculans in routine macrobenthic surveys is emphasized.     

Population dynamics and body composition of the Arctic hyperiid amphipod Themisto libellula in Svalbard fjords

Population structure, growth and body composition (wet-, dry-, ash weight and total lipid) of the Arctic pelagic amphipod Themisto libellula were studied in four fjords on West Spitsbergen, Svalbard, from July to December 2000 and in April 2002. In one of the fjords, Kongsfjorden, growth of T. libellula was calculated as the change in mean length of the 0+ cohort from July to December. The young were released from the brood pouches in early spring (March–April). Summer growth was 3.5 mm month⁻¹, whereas growth during the autumn was only 0.6 mm month⁻¹. The size frequency distributions indicated a 2–2.5 year life-span. The size structure of the population in Hornsund, the southernmost fjord on Spitsbergen, indicated a delayed time of spawning. The storage of lipids in T. libellula occurred during late summer and towards the winter, when the food items contain the maximum amount of stored lipids.     

Common macrofaunal dominant species in the sediments of some north Norwegian and Svalbard glacial fjords

Based on own data from the north Norwegian Holandsfjord and two Svalbard fjords (the Van Mijenfjord and the Raudfjord), and literature data from three other fjord regions at Svalbard, soft-bottom communities are analysed and discussed in order to identify common and numerically dominant species in glacier-derived fine-particulated inorganic impacted sediments. The most abundant common taxa in the inner and presumed most glacier-impacted parts of the Holandsfjord, the Van Mijenfjord and the Raudfjord were the surface-feeding detrivorous polychaetes Laonice cirrata, Chaetozone setosa, Myriochele sp. and Terebellides stroemi, the subsurface-feeding detrivorous polychaetes Scoloplos armiger, Ophelina acuminata, Maldane sarsi and Praxillella spp., the carnivorous polychaete Lumbrineris sp., and the subsurface detrivorous bivalves Yoldiella lenticula, Nuculoma tenuis, Nuculana pernula and Thyasira. In addition to these taxa, results from the other reviewed surveys in Svalbard indicate that glacier-influenced fjords may also be numerically dominated by the presumed surface-feeding detrivorous polychaete Levinsenia gracilis, the subsurface-feeding detrivorous polychaete Heteromastus filiformis, the carnivorous polychaetes Harmothoe and Aglaophamus malmgreni, and the subsurface-feeding detrivorous bivalves Yoldiella frigida, Yoldiella nana and Portlandia arctica. The generally quite frequent Heteromastus filiformis, Maldane sarsi and Praxillella, which feed head down at some depth in the sediments, may contribute, through selective feeding and recycling of organic carbon by depositing faecal products at the sediment surface, to the maintenance of relatively high faunal abundances in the organically poor sediments of glacier-influenced fjords. Received: 6 August 1997 / Accepted: 15 December 1997     

Patterns of magnesium content in Arctic bryozoan skeletons along a depth gradient

A growing body of evidence suggests that ocean acidification acting synergistically with ocean warming alters carbonate biomineralization in a variety of marine biota. Magnesium often substitutes for Ca in the calcite skeletons of marine invertebrates, increasing their solubility. The spatio-environmental distribution of Mg in marine invertebrates has seldom been studied, despite its importance for assessing vulnerabilities to ocean acidification. Because pH decreases with water depth, it is predicted that levels of Mg in calcite skeletons should also decrease to counteract dissolution. Such a pattern has been suggested by evidence from echinoderms. Data on magnesium content and depth in Arctic bryozoans (52 species, 103 individuals, 150 samples) are here used to test this prediction, aided by comparison with six conceptual models explaining all possible scenarios. Analyses were based on a uniform dataset spanning more than 200 m of coastal water depth. No significant relationship was found between depth and Mg content; indeed, the highest Mg content among the analyzed taxa (8.7 % mol MgCO₃) was recorded from the deepest settings (>200 m). Our findings contrast with previously published results from echinoderms in which Mg was found to decrease with depth. The bryozoan results suggest that ocean acidification may have less impact on the studied bryozoans than is generally assumed. In the broad context, our study exemplifies quantitative testing of spatial patterns of skeletal geochemistry for predicting the biological effects of environmental change in the oceans.     

南京市土壤集合组成及其嵌套性分析

随着工业化和城市化的加速发展,土壤资源与土壤环境压力日益增加。近20a来,南京市城镇化发展迅速,而且城镇的发展正导致原来相对自然的大片土壤面积减少,深入研究南京市土壤组成以及嵌套性特征,有助于了解土壤类型的分布特征,正确估计城镇化的后果,在保护土壤资源以及土壤多样性方面具有一定的理论意义和现实意义。以南京市各乡镇等级单位的土壤集合为研究对象,对南京市的土壤组成及嵌套性进行了分析。结果显示,在南京市各乡镇等级单位中共有47个土种,其中优势土种6种,常见土种13种、稀有土种25种、濒危土种3种。土壤集合在组成上呈现出不完全嵌套格局,分布于土种数较少的乡镇等级单位中的土种多数也分布在土种数较多的乡镇等级单位中。土壤类型数（S）与面积（A）是幂函数关系,其最佳回归拟合方程为：S=0．7284A^0.5922。嵌套格局与南京市的土种面积、地形以及地理位置关系密切,面积大的乡镇等级单位有更多的土种主要原因是它们有更广阔的生境范围,具有更高的生境多样性（如水域、沼泽、地形地貌、丘陵等）,随着面积的缩小,某些特定的生境类型随着逐渐丧失,与此相关的一些土种也随之消失,于是就产生了嵌套结构。     

Evidence of artisanal fishing impacts and depth refuge in assemblages of Fijian reef fish

Protection from fishing generally results in an increase in the abundance and biomass of species targeted by fisheries within marine reserve boundaries. Natural refuges such as depth may also protect such species, yet few studies in the Indo Pacific have investigated the effects of depth concomitant with marine reserves. We studied the effects of artisanal fishing and depth on reef fish assemblages in the Kubulau District of Vanua Levu Island, Fiji, using baited remote underwater stereo-video systems. Video samples were collected from shallow (5–8 m) and deep (25–30 m) sites inside and outside of a large old marine reserve (60.6 km², 13 years old) and a small new marine reserve (4.25 km², 4 years old). Species richness tended to be greater in the shallow waters of the large old reserve when compared to fished areas. In the deeper waters, species richness appeared to be comparable. The difference in shallow waters was driven by species targeted by fisheries, indicative of a depth refuge effect. In contrast, differences in the abundance composition of the fish assemblage existed between protected and fished areas for deep sites, but not shallow. Fish species targeted by local fisheries were 89% more abundant inside the large old reserve than surrounding fished areas, while non-targeted species were comparable. We observed no difference in the species richness or abundance of species targeted by fisheries inside and outside of the small new reserve. This study suggests that artisanal fishing impacts on the abundance and species richness of coral reef fish assemblages and effects of protection are more apparent with large reserves that have been established for a long period of time. Observed effects of protection also vary with depth, highlighting the importance of explicitly incorporating multiple depth strata in studies of marine reserves.     

Identifying key environmental factors related to plant and crustacean assemblages in Mediterranean temporary ponds

The current interest in Mediterranean temporary wet habitats, considered to be habitats of European Community Interest, is mainly due to their characteristic flora and fauna. Several contributions characterize each of these two components separately, but considering them simultaneously could reveal possible interactions and a more complete view of the habitat that would be useful to improve conservation measures. This paper investigates crustacean and plant assemblages in six Mediterranean temporary ponds and their relationship with several environmental variables. Significant positive relationships were found between species richness and Shannon diversity index of plant and crustacean assemblages. Crustaceans had a higher similarity among ponds than plants and, consequently, each pond had a more characteristic assemblage of plants than of crustaceans. The two groups showed a different sensitivity to environmental factors and only two factors affected both: altitude and surface area of the wet system. Disturbances (e.g. grazing by cattle) and pond size were very important for plants, whereas they were irrelevant for crustaceans. On the other hand, distance to the nearest pond, hydroperiod length, and water nitrogen were only important for crustaceans. Although similar trends on richness and diversity were observed for both biotic groups, the use of only one of them for conservation programs would not be sufficient. Our results suggest that simultaneously taking into account several community components would result in a better understanding of ecosystem functionality.     

Homogenization of fish assemblages in different lake depth strata at local and regional scales

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Vernal sedimentation trends in north Norwegian fjords: temporary anomaly in 234Th particulate fluxes related to Phaeocystis pouchetii proliferation

We report data of a naturally occurring radionuclide, ²³⁴Th, an in situ tracer, to investigate vertical export of biogenic matter during a vernal bloom of Phaeocystis pouchetii in the fjords of northern Norway. To optimise sampling of different stages of the bloom, three fjords with increasing oceanic influence (Balsfjord, Malangen fjord and Ullsfjord, respectively) were investigated in April 1997. Contrasting situations were encountered between the three fjords: the proliferation of P. pouchetii in Ullsfjord surface waters coincided with a drastic reduction of particulate ²³⁴Th fluxes in traps, although particulate organic carbon (POC) and dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMSP) were exported and ²³⁴Th was available in surface waters. When large colonies make up a significant fraction of the vertical flux, as observed in Ullsfjord in April 1997, there may be a large and rapid change in the POC/²³⁴Th ratio, further complicating the use of ²³⁴Th as a tracer for POC export. The results suggest that the proliferation of Phaeocystis pouchetii during vernal bloom could temporary increase OC/²³⁴Th ratio of particles and delay the particulate export of ²³⁴Th, and probably of other particle-reactive species, from surface waters.     

Inter- and intra-annual variations of macroinvertebrate assemblages are related to the hydroperiod in Mediterranean temporary ponds

Macroinvertebrate assemblages of 22 temporary ponds with different hydroperiod were sampled monthly during a dry year (2005–2006) and a wet year (2006–2007). Coleopteran and Heteropteran adults were most abundant at the end of the hydroperiod, while Coleopteran larvae, mainly Dytiscidae, were mostly recorded in spring. Macroinvertebrate assemblages differed between study years. The shorter hydroperiod of ponds in the dry year constrained the length of the aquatic period for macroinvertebrates, and three distinct wet phases of community composition could be distinguished: filling phase, aquatic phase and drying phase. In the wet year, with a longer pond hydroperiod, five phases could be identified, with the aquatic phase differentiated into winter, early spring and late spring phases. Dispersers such as Anisops sardeus, Berosus guttalis or Anacaena lutescens were typical during the filling phase and Corixa affinis or Enochrus fuscipennis during the drying phase. The ponds with intermediate hydroperiod showed a similar composition (mainly dispersers) at the beginning and end of their wet period; this is not being seen in early drying or long hydroperiod ponds. A general pattern was detected, with similar variation between both years, which may be associated with the life histories of the macroinvertebrate taxa recorded. Guest editors: B. Oertli, R. Cereghino, A. Hull & R. Miracle Pond Conservation: From Science to Practice. 3rd Conference of the European Pond Conservation Network, Valencia, Spain, 14–16 May 2008     

Composition of arthropod species assemblages in Bt-expressing and near isogenic eggplants in experimental fields

The environmental impact of genetically modified (GM) plants in experimental fields has been examined in several ways, in particular with respect to the dynamics of specific nontarget organisms. The approach of sampling for biodiversity in agroecosystems to compare complex patterns could also be useful in studying potential disruptions caused by GM crops. In this study, we set up replicated field plots of Bt-expressing eggplants and near isogenic untransformed eggplants as a control. We monitored the presence and abundance of herbivore and predator arthropods in weekly visual samplings of the plant canopy for three growing seasons (2001-2003). Insect species were pooled in organismal taxonomic units (OTUs); three multivariate methods were used to compare species assemblage as an estimate of insect biodiversity. This multistep statistical approach proved to be efficient in recognizing association patterns, as evidenced by the data for the target species Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) clearly showing a significant association with the control plots. All the analyses indicate a comparable species assemblage between transgenic and near isogenic eggplant areas. Our results suggest that some taxa may warrant more specific study. For example, Alticinae beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) were alternatively more abundant in either of the two treatments, and their overall abundance was significantly higher on transgenic eggplants. In light of these results and because of their taxonomic proximity to the target species, these herbivores may represent an important nontarget group to be further studied. Moreover, some sap feeders (e.g., Homoptera: Cicadellidae) were more abundant on Bt-expressing plants in some samples in all 3 yr.     

Impact of warming and timing of snow melt on soil microarthropod assemblages associated with Dryas-dominated plant communities on Svalbard

Open Top Chambers (OTCs) were used to measure impacts of predicted global warming on the structure of the invertebrate community of a Dryas octopetala heath in West Spitsbergen. Results from the OTC experiment were compared with natural variation in invertebrate community structure along a snowmelt transect through similar vegetation up the adjacent hillside. Changes along this transect represent the natural response of the invertebrate community to progressively longer and potentially warmer and drier growing seasons. Using MANOVA, ANOVA, Linear Discriminant Analysis and χ² tests, significant differences in community composition were found between OTCs and controls and among stations along the transect. Numbers of cryptostigmatic and predatory mites tended to be higher in the warmer OTC treatment but numbers of the aphid Acyrthosiphon svalbardicum , hymenopterous parasitoids, Symphyta larvae, and weevils were higher in control plots. Most Collembola, including Hypogastrura tullbergi , Lepidocyrtus lignorum and Isotoma anglicana , followed a similar trend to the aphid, but Folsomia bisetosa was more abundant in the OTC treatment. Trends along the transect showed clear parallels with the OTC experiment. However, mite species, particularly Diapterobates notatus , tended to increase in numbers under warming, with several species collectively increasing at the earlier exposed transect stations. Overall, the results suggest that the composition and structure of Arctic invertebrate communities associated with Dryas will change significantly under global warming.     

Nonparametric tests for homogeneity of species assemblages: a data depth approach

Testing homogeneity of species assemblages has important applications in ecology. Due to the unique structure of abundance data often collected in ecological studies, most classical statistical tests cannot be applied directly. In this article, we propose two novel nonparametric tests for comparing species assemblages based on the concept of data depth. They can be considered as a natural generalization of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and the Cramér-von Mises tests (KS and CM) in this species assemblage comparison context. Our simulation studies show that the proposed test is more powerful than other existing methods under various settings. A real example is used to demonstrate how the proposed method is applied to compare species assemblages using plant community data from a highly diverse tropical forest at Barro Colorado Island, Panama.     

Sedimentation and composition of wall communities in Alaskan fjords

The effects of suspended sediments on the composition of wall communities in Alaskan fjords were investigated by quantitative assessment of underwater photo-quadrats. In fjords with actively retreating tidewater glaciers, suspended sediment levels were extremely high at the heads and were exponentially lower at the mouths. Fjords without glaciers had low suspended sediment levels throughout. The per cent cover and number of species were lowest where sedimentation was highest, at the heads of glacial fjords. Here the wall communities were dominated by a sparse cover of small serpulid worms. Richer communities comprising mostly algae, sponges, hydroids, bryozoans, tunicates and brachiopods were found in fjords without glaciers, and at the mouths of glacial fjords. There was a positive correlation between water clarity and community composition along a gradient from heads to the mouths of fjords with high suspended sediment levels. Accepted: 11 January 1999     

Saproxylic beetle assemblages related to silvicultural management intensity and stand structures in a beech forest in Southern Germany

Compared to agricultural land and spruce plantations, central European beech-oak forests are often relatively close to natural conditions. However, forest management may alter these conditions. In Steigerwald, southern Germany, a large beech-dominated forest area, three management intensities were applied during the past 30–70 years. Here, we examined the influence of management intensity on saproxylic beetles in >100-year old mature stands at 69 sampling plots in 2004. We sampled beetles using flight-window traps and time standard direct searches. The community structure based on presence/absence data changed remarkably along the gradient from unmanaged to low-intensity to high-intensity management, but these differences were not evident using abundance data from flight interception traps. Saproxylic species richness decreased in intensively managed forests. Elateridae and threatened species richness peaked in unmanaged forests and in forests under low-intensity management. Saproxylic species richness was dependent on certain micro-habitat factors. These factors were (1) the amount of dead wood for Elateridae, overall and threatened saproxylic beetle richness; (2) the amount of flowering plants for Cerambycidae; (3) the richness of wood-inhabiting fungi for Staphylinidae, Melandryidae and overall saproxylic beetle richness; and (4) the frequency of Fomes fomentarius for threatened species. Species richness was better explained by plot factors, such as dead wood or fungi, than by management intensity. These results suggest that the natural variation of dead wood niches (decay stages, snag sizes, tree cavities and wood-inhabiting fungi species) must be maintained to efficiently conserve the whole saproxylic beetle fauna of beech forests. Also, intensive management may alter the specialised saproxylic beetle community even if the initial tree-species composition is maintained, which was the case in our study. For monitoring the ecological sustainability of forest management we must focus on threatened species. If structures alone are sampled then the amount of dead wood is the best indicator for a rich saproxylic beetle fauna.     

A preliminary examination of depth associated spatial variation in fish assemblages on small artificial reefs

Small concrete artificial reef modules (hemisphere-shaped, approximately 1.3 m diameter, 1 m high) were placed at two sites, eight modules per site. The sites were in 7 m and 21 m of water, 1.6 km apart, off the coast of southeast Florida, USA. The reefs were censused monthly for fish over a 19-month period. Species, number of fish, and estimated total length of each individual were recorded by divers using SCUBA. After the monthly census, all fish were removed from the reefs with a piscicide. A total of 88 species were recorded in the study, with significantly greater diversity on the deep reefs (monthly mean of 7.6 versus 3.0 shallow, P < 0.001, anova ). There were also significantly more biomass (calculated from length), and more large fish (>5 cm) on the reefs at 21 m than at 7 m (P < 0.001). There were more small fish at the shallow site (P < 0.05). Although it is not clear what variable(s) associated with the two depths is responsible for the differences, these results highlight the potential differences in artificial reef and ambient environment interactions within a localized area.     

Soft bottom species richness and diversity as a function of depth and iceberg scour in Arctic glacial Kongsfjorden (Svalbard)

Macrozoobenthic soft-sediment communities of central Arctic Kongsfjorden inhabiting six depth zones between 5 and 30 m were sampled using SCUBA-diving during June–August 2003 and analysed comparatively. About 63 taxa were found, nine of which had not been reported for Kongsfjorden and four for Svalbard. Suspension feeding or surface and sub-surface detritivorous polychaetes and deposit-feeding amphipods were dominant. Only 11 of the 63 taxa (45 species and additional 18 families not further identified) inhabited the complete depth range. Biomass ranged from 3.5 to 25.0 g ash free dry mass m⁻² and mean Shannon diversity (Log e) was 2.06. Similarity clustering from abundance and biomass data showed a significant difference between the shallow station (5 m) and the rest. The latter formed two sub-groups (10–20 and 25–30 m). Depth is irrevocably correlated with ice-scouring. Thus the differences in diversity together with the predicted iceberg scour intensity support the ‘intermediate disturbance hypothesis’ indicating that habitats impacted by moderate iceberg scouring enable higher diversity. In contrast, biotopes frequently affected only host pioneer communities, while mature, less diverse assemblages dominate depths of low impact.     

Eutrophication and climate warming alter spatial (depth) co-occurrence patterns of lake phytoplankton assemblages

The composition and dynamics of plankton communities are critically affected by human-induced environmental changes. We analysed 33 years of phytoplankton monthly data collected in Lake Zurich (Switzerland), assigning organisms (genus level) to taxonomic groups (class, family), Reynolds associations and size categories. The aim was to understand how eutrophication and climate change have influenced taxa co-occurrence patterns within and between groups over the lake water column (14 depths, 0–135 m), using null-models to test for non-random spatial (depth) assembly. We found that the whole community showed high taxa co-occurrence levels, significantly deviating over time from random assembly concurrently with lake warming and reduced nutrient loading. This pattern was driven mostly by the depth structure of metalimnetic assemblages during summer and autumn. The prevalence of non-random spatial patterns changed for different taxonomic and functional groups, with only few significant deviations from null-model expectations. Within taxonomic and functional groups (particularly Classes and size categories), the frequency of spatial overdispersion of taxa decreased over time while the frequency of clustering increased. Our data suggest that the relative importance of mechanisms determining phytoplankton metacommunity dynamics have changed along with environmental gradients shaping water column structure.