Glanders: off to the races with Burkholderia mallei

Burkholderia mallei, the etiologic agent of the disease known as glanders, is primarily a disease affecting horses and is transmitted to humans by direct contact with infected animals. The use of B. mallei as a biological weapon has been reported and currently, there is no vaccine available for either humans or animals. Despite the history and highly infective nature of B. mallei, as well as its potential use as a bio-weapon, B. mallei research to understand the pathogenesis and the host responses to infection remains limited. Therefore, this minireview will focus on current efforts to elucidate B. mallei virulence, the associated host immune responses elicited during infection and discuss the feasibility of vaccine development.     

Identification of the causative agents of glanders and melioidosis by polymerase chain reaction

Burkholderia mallei and B. pseudomallei are causative agents of glanders and melioidosis, respectively, i.e. severe and fatal infection diseases of man and animal. The computer-based analysis of the 23S rRNA gene sites was used for selecting the primers. Two pairs of primers were chosen for the identification of B. mallei and Bpseudomallei. DNAs from 48 B. pseudomallei and 15 strains of B. mallei, unlike from other geterological bacteria, were positively amplified. Therefore, the method of polymerase chain reaction can be used in laboratory diagnosis of glanders and melioidosis.     

Burkholderia mallei expresses a unique lipopolysaccharide mixture that is a potent activator of human Toll-like receptor 4 complexes

Burkholderia mallei, the aetiologic agent of glanders, causes a variety of illnesses in animals and humans ranging from occult infections to acute fulminating septicaemias. To better understand the role of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the pathogenesis of these diseases, studies were initiated to characterize the structural and biological properties of lipid A moieties expressed by this organism. Using a combination of chemical analyses and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, B. mallei was shown to express a heterogeneous mixture of tetra- and penta-acylated lipid A species that were non-stoichiometrically substituted with 4-amino-4-deoxy-arabinose residues. The major penta-acylated species consisted of bisphosphorylated d-glucosamine disaccharide backbones possessing two amide linked 3-hydroxyhexadecanoic acids, two ester linked 3-hydroxytetradecanoic acids [C14:0(3-OH)] and an acyloxyacyl linked tetradecanoic acid, whereas, the major tetra-acylated species possessed all but the 3'-linked C14:0(3-OH) residues. In addition, although devoid of hexa-acylated species, B. mallei LPS was shown to be a potent activator of human Toll-like receptor 4 complexes and stimulated human macrophage-like cells (THP-1 and U-937), monocyte-derived macrophages and dendritic cells to produce high levels of TNF-alpha, IL-6 and RANTES. Based upon these results, it appears that B. mallei LPS is likely to play a significant role in the pathogenesis of human disease.     

影响鼻疽伯克霍尔德氏菌基因组密码子用法的因素分析

鼻疽伯克霍尔德氏菌(Burkholderia mallei ATCC 23344)的基因组密码子使用受多种因素的影响,本研究根据该菌的完整基因组序列,运用多元统计分析和对应分析的方法,探讨了鼻疽伯克霍尔德氏菌全基因组序列密码子的使用模式和影响密码子使用的因素。结果表明基因表达水平的高低是影响密码子使用的主要因素;基因组中编码区的碱基组成、蛋白质的疏水性和基因的长度对密码子的使用也有一定的影响,但影响力不及基因的表达水平。同时,通过比较高表达的基因、低表达的基因密码子使用情况,GCG 和 CUC 等 21 个密码子被确定为鼻疽伯克霍尔德氏菌的主要偏爱密码子。以上结果对鼻疽伯克霍尔德氏菌的密码子用法研究、在分子水平上研究物种进化、基因组中未知基因的预测、开放阅读框的判断、功能基因的表达以及鼻疽病疫苗的研发等工作都提供了理论基础,具有较强的指导作用。     

Use of PCR for identification of Burkholderia mallei

Stimuli of glanders belong to the potential agents of biological terror. The possibility to use various primers in the identification of B. mallei was investigated and the significance of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was defined within the scheme of laboratory glanders diagnosis in the offered paper. The constructed amplifying test-systems can be used to detect the glanders both in the environmental objects contaminated with B. mallei and in experimental clinical material.     

Comparative genomics and an insect model rapidly identify novel virulence genes of Burkholderia mallei

Burkholderia pseudomallei and its host-adapted deletion clone Burkholderia mallei cause the potentially fatal human diseases melioidosis and glanders, respectively. The antibiotic resistance profile and ability to infect via aerosol of these organisms and the absence of protective vaccines have led to their classification as major biothreats and select agents. Although documented infections by these bacteria date back over 100 years, relatively little is known about their virulence and pathogenicity mechanisms. We used in silico genomic subtraction to generate their virulome, a set of 650 putative virulence-related genes shared by B. pseudomallei and B. mallei but not present in five closely related nonpathogenic Burkholderia species. Although most of these genes are clustered in putative operons, the number of targets for mutant construction and verification of reduced virulence in animal models is formidable. Therefore, Galleria mellonella (wax moth) larvae were evaluated as a surrogate host; we found that B. pseudomallei and B. mallei, but not other phylogenetically related bacteria, were highly pathogenic for this insect. More importantly, four previously characterized B. mallei mutants with reduced virulence in hamsters or mice had similarly reduced virulence in G. mellonella larvae. Site-specific inactivation of selected genes in the computationally derived virulome identified three new potential virulence genes, each of which was required for rapid and efficient killing of larvae. Thus, this approach may provide a means to quickly identify high-probability virulence genes in B. pseudomallei, B. mallei, and other pathogens.     

A possible pitfall in the identification of Burkholderia mallei using molecular identification systems based on the sequence of the flagellin fliC gene

Amotile Burkholderia mallei and motile Burkholderia pseudomallei display a high similarity with regard to phenotype and clinical syndromes, glanders and melioidosis. The aim of this study was to establish a fast and reliable molecular method for identification and differentiation. Despite amotility, the gene of the filament forming flagellin (fliC) could be completely sequenced in two B. mallei strains. Only one mutation was identified discriminating between B. mallei and B. pseudomallei. A polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism assay was designed making use of the absence of an AvaII recognition site in B. mallei. All seven B. mallei, 12 out of 15 B. pseudomallei and 36 closely related apathogenic Burkholderia thailandensis strains were identified correctly. However, in three B. pseudomallei strains a point mutation at gene position 798 (G to C) disrupted the AvaII site. Therefore, molecular systems based on the fliC sequence can be used for a reliable proof of strains of the three species but not for the differentiation of B. mallei and B. pseudomallei isolates.     

Genome-wide expression analysis of iron regulation in Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia mallei using DNA microarrays

Burkholderia pseudomallei and B. mallei are the causative agents of melioidosis and glanders, respectively. As iron regulation of gene expression is common in bacteria, in the present studies, we have used microarray analysis to examine the effects of growth in different iron concentrations on the regulation of gene expression in B. pseudomallei and B. mallei. Gene expression profiles for these two bacterial species were similar under high and low iron growth conditions irrespective of growth phase. Growth in low iron led to reduced expression of genes encoding most respiratory metabolic systems and proteins of putative function, such as NADH-dehydrogenases, cytochrome oxidases, and ATP-synthases. In contrast, genes encoding siderophore-mediated iron transport, heme-hemin receptors, and a variety of metabolic enzymes for alternative metabolism were induced under low iron conditions. The overall gene expression profiles suggest that B. pseudomallei and B. mallei are able to adapt to the iron-restricted conditions in the host environment by up-regulating an iron-acquisition system and by using alternative metabolic pathways for energy production. The observations relative to the induction of specific metabolic enzymes during bacterial growth under low iron conditions warrants further experimentation.     

Characterization of the Burkholderia mallei tonB Mutant and Its Potential as a Backbone Strain for Vaccine Development

BackgroundIn this study, a Burkholderia mallei tonB mutant (TMM001) deficient in iron acquisition was constructed, characterized, and evaluated for its protective properties in acute inhalational infection models of murine glanders and melioidosis.Conclusions/SignificanceAlthough further work is needed to prevent chronic infection by TMM001 while maintaining immunogenicity, our attenuated strain demonstrates great potential as a backbone strain for future vaccine development against both glanders and melioidosis.     

Immunobiological properties of Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia mallei capsular substances

The biopolymer composition, immunotropic and immunogenic properties of the fractions of B. pseudomallei and B. mallei were under study. The first two capsular fractions of these agents were found to be similar in their biopolymer composition that was indicative of their close relations. At the same time the causative agents of glanders proved to have decreased content of high molecular glycoproteids and LPS fragments. In the causative agents of melioidosis, capsular fractions K3 and K4 were characterized by the domination of proteins with a molecular weight of 42-25 kD. Fraction K4 in B. pseudomallei and fraction K1 in B. mallei had pronounced immunosuppressing properties ensuring the protection of encapsulated microbial cells in the body. The biopolymers forming fractions K1, K2, K3 in B. pseudomallei and fraction K2 in B. mallei were characterized by immunomodulating properties.     

Detection and differentiation of Burkholderia pseudomallei, Burkholderia mallei and Burkholderia thailandensis by multiplex PCR

Burkholderia pseudomallei, a Gram-negative bacterium that causes melioidosis may be differentiated from closely related species of Burkholderia mallei that causes glanders and non-pathogenic species of Burkholderia thailandensis by multiplex PCR. The multiplex PCR consists of primers that flank a 10-bp repetitive element in B. pseudomallei and B. mallei amplifying PCR fragment of varying sizes between 400-700 bp, a unique sequence in B. thailandensis amplifying a PCR fragment of 308 bp and the metalloprotease gene amplifying a PCR fragment of 245 bp in B. pseudomallei and B. thailandensis. The multiplex PCR not only can differentiate the three Burkholderia species but can also be used for epidemiological typing of B. pseudomallei and B. mallei strains.     

The use of animal infection models to study the pathogenesis of melioidosis and glanders

The use of animal infection models is central to the study of microbial pathogenesis. In combination with genetic, immunological and antigen purification techniques, much can be learned regarding the pathogenesis of diseases caused by microorganisms. This update focuses on the recent use of animal infection models to study the pathogenesis of melioidosis and glanders.     

Ultrastructural immunochemical study of pathogenic Burkholderia capsule

The capsular structures of Burkholderia pseudomallei, B. mallei, B. cepacia and their avirulent noncapsular mutants were studied with the use of electron ahd immunocytochemical techniques. For this purpose, antimelio-idosis monoclonal antibodies (McAb) G11 and 1 G2, epitope-aimed at capsular glycopyotein of 200 kD and outer-membrane proteins of 42 and 39 kD, were used. As revealed in this study, the typical causative agents of melioidosis and glanders formed the capsule and exhibited high virulence due to the antiphagocytic activity of 200 kD glycoprotein, whose epitopes were found to be incorporated into the capsule, in contrast to avirulent variants and B. cepacia, found to have no such structure. The recognition of the membrane determinants of McAb 1 G2 on the outer-membrane surface of the non-capsular variants of microbes known to be the causative agents of melioidosis and glanders was indicative of absence of the capsule in these microbial cells. These data concerning the role of 200 kD antigen in virulence, its structural and functional characteristics may be efffectively used in the study of the pathogenetic mechanisms of melioidosis and glanders, as well as in the construction of preparations for their immunodiagnostics and prophylaxis.     

The use of polymerase chain reaction for detection of the agents of glanders and melioidosis using experimental infection

Glanders and melioidosis are severe infectious diseases of people and animals. The causative agents of these infections refer to the potential agents of bioterrorism of group B. In this work the possibility of use of flagellin-based primers for the identification of B. mallei and B. pseudomallei and for diagnosis of experimental glanders and melioidosis was studied. The obtained results permit to make a conclusion that PCR using the developed primers may be recommended for the incorporation in the scheme of laboratory diagnosis of glanders and melioidosis both for the identification of clean cultures and in experimental clinical material.     

Molecular-genetic approaches to diagnosis and intraspecific typing of causative agents of glanders and melioidosis

Pathogenic Burkholderia--Burkholderia mallei and Burkholderia pseudomallei--are causative agents of glanders and melioidosis, severe infectious diseases of man and animals. They are regarded as potential agents of bioterrorism. The existing bacteriological and immunological methods of identification of B. mallei and B. pseudomallei are not efficient enough for the rapid diagnosis and typing of strains. Described in the paper are molecular methods of detection of the agents by PCR, hybridization and strain typing made on the basis of bacterial total cell protein profiles, RAPD, ribotyping as well as of plasmid and DNA microrestriction analyses.     

Antigenic relatedness between Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia mallei

Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia mallei are causative agents of distinct diseases, namely, melioidosis and glanders, respectively. The two species are very closely related, based on DNA-DNA homology, base sequence of the 16S rRNA, and phenotypic characteristics. Based on the use of polyclonal antisera, B. pseudomallei and B. mallei are also found to be antigenically closely related to one another. We previously reported the production of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against B. pseudomallei antigens; one group was specific for the 200-kDa exopolysaccharide present on the surface of all B. pseudomallei isolates, and the other was specific for the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) structure present on more than 95% of the B. pseudomallei tested. In the present study, we showed that the MAbs against 200-kDa antigen of B. pseudomallei cross-reacted with a component present also in some B. mallei isolates (3/6), but the positive immunoblot reaction was noted below the 200-kDa position. On the other hand, none of the six B. mallei isolates reacted with the MAb specific for B. pseudomallei LPS. It was of interest to observe that only the 3 exopolysaccharide-positive B. mallei isolates reacted with a commercial MAb against B. mallei LPS. The data presented suggest that B. mallei can be classified antigenically into two types based on their reactivities with different MAbs, i.e., the presence or absence of exopolysaccharide and the types of lipopolysaccharide. The heterogeneity of the LPS from these two closely related organisms is most likely related to the differences in its O-polysaccharide side chain.     

Phagocytosis of Burkholderia mallei as a criterion for immunogenicity evaluation of its capsular antigens

Test-system using index of phagocytosis of noncapsulated mutant loaded by one of the several capsular antigenic complexes was developed and used for screening for both immunogenic and protective capsular antigens of B. mallei. Direct correlation between index of phagocytosis, level of delayed-type hypersensivity, and protective effect of capsular antigens has been shown on the model of experimental melioidosis in susceptible white mice, guinea pigs and white rats. Obtained results let to use the developed test-system for initial selection of B. mallei protective capsular antigens and their further study as potential components of preparations for specific prophylaxis of glanders and melioidosis.     

阿尔茨海默病转基因小鼠的特点和应用

建立动物模型的目的是在实验动物身上复制人类疾病的模型,用于研究人类疾病的病因、发病、病理变化以及疾病的预防和治疗。目前尚无理想的阿尔茨海默病（Alzheimer’s disease,AD）动物模型,AD实验动物模型的滞后在很大程度上制约了AD治疗药物的筛选。随着AD病因和发病机制研究的不断深入,更完善的AD动物模型也在陆续出现。近年来出现的转基因动物模型属于AD的病因模型,但也不能完整复制出AD的所有特征。最大的缺憾在于缺乏神经原纤维缠结（neurofibrillary tangles,NFTs）和在某些转基因模型中（尤其是单转基因模型）无广泛的神经元丢失。虽然用免疫组化方法检测到tau蛋白,但从未发现成对螺旋纤丝（paired helical filaments,PHF）。     

Effects of some chemopreparations on the causative agents of glanders and melioidosis]

The authors present the results of in vitro determination of the sensitivity of the causative agent of glanders and melioidosis to 8 preparations-5-nitrofuran derivatives, and also to negram and PASK. The most active against M. mallei and Ps. pseudomallei were furazonal and furacrillin; negram was less active. No naturally resistanct strains to furacrylin and furazonal were revealed among the M. mallei and Ps. pseudomallei strains studied.     

Development and validation of a method for purification of mallein for the diagnosis of glanders in equines

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: The allergic test of mallein is one of the most frequently used tests, together with the Complement Fixation Test (CFT), for the diagnosis of glanders in endemic areas. Mallein, a purified protein derivative (PPD), is produced similarly to PPD tuberculin and the end product is a primarily proteic antigen, which is only poorly purified. The immuno-allergic activity of mallein is believed to be due to a high molecular weight group of proteins present in the antigen. To improve the quality of the antigen, in terms of sensitivity and specificity, a new method of mallein production was developed, in which purification was accomplished by ultrafiltration in a Tangential Flow Filtration system (TFF). RESULTS: The TFF methodology efficiently separated the high and low molecular weight protein groups of mallein. The five TFF-purified malleins, produced from Burkholderia mallei strains isolated from clinical cases of glanders in Brazil, proved to be more potent than standard mallein in the induction of an allergic reaction in sensitized animals. Regarding specificity, two of the purified malleins were equivalent to the standard and three were less specific. CONCLUSION: Some of the TFF-purified malleins showed considerable potential to be used as an auxiliary test in the diagnosis of glanders.