三峡库区消落带立柳(Salix matsudana)生长及营养元素分配特征

立柳因良好的耐淹性常被用于三峡库区消落带的植被重建。为探讨立柳如何通过营养元素的积累和分配来适应库区消落带冬季水淹,于2015年5月对三峡库区消落带植被修复示范基地内3个采样带(175 m,170 m和165 m)中立柳的生长状况以及叶、枝条和根的营养元素含量特征进行分析。结果表明:(1)经过3个水淹周期后,随着水淹强度的增加,立柳的株高、基径和冠幅均受到一定的抑制;但与种植初期相比,3个采样带中立柳的株高、基径和冠幅均显著增加,且生长状态良好。(2)立柳各器官中营养元素含量均处于正常水平,但水淹抑制了根中N、P的积累,促进了Fe和Mn的积累;水淹显著降低了海拔165 m处立柳叶和枝条中Ca含量、枝条和根中Cu和Zn的含量。(3)水淹胁迫导致N、P、K、Mg元素更多地在叶中积累,而Cu和Zn在枝条中大量积累,这有利于退水后植株的光合合成以及恢复生长;Fe、Mn元素在根中大量积累,其对根系正常生理可能造成的干扰值得进一步关注。研究表明,在不同的水淹胁迫梯度下,立柳可针对性地调整其营养元素积累和分配方式,保持植株正常的生长状态,对维护三峡库区消落带生态系统的正常结构和功能具有重要作用。但在库区消落带植被恢复和重建工作中,需加强170 m以下海拔区域立柳生长的监测和研究。     

三峡库区消落带4种典型草本植物的生态化学计量特征

为研究三峡水库消落带优势植物的养分利用特征及其对生境的适应策略,选择消落带分布最多的4种草本植物为研究对象,分析了植物根、茎、叶的碳(C)、氮(N)、磷(P)、钾(K)含量和化学计量比特征。结果表明:(1)相比陆地系统和自然湿地系统,消落带植物具有较低的C含量和较高的N、P、K含量,C/N、C/P、C/K均较低,表明植物具有低固碳和高养分积累、低养分利用效率和高生长速率的特征;(2)4种植物的养分含量和计量比存在一定差异,其中狗牙根具有较低的N、P、K含量和较高的C/N、C/P、C/K,且变异系数均低于其他3种植物,其低养分需求、高养分利用效率以及较强的内稳性可能是其在库区分布最广的重要机制;(3)4种植物在不同器官的养分分配策略相似,均表现为叶片C含量低于根和茎,而N、P、K含量则显著高于根、茎;同时,与根、茎相比,叶片C/N、C/P、C/K较低,N/P、N/K较高,且在不同生境条件下变异系数较小,表现出相对较高的稳定性;(4)落消带植物的养分含量及计量比从全库区上游至下游的空间变异性较强,其中N、C/N、N/P变异性较大,而C、P、K变异性较小,表明植物N含量受生境变化的影响较大,...     

Diversity and Above-Ground Biomass Patterns of Vascular Flora Induced by Flooding in the Drawdown Area of China's Three Gorges Reservoir

Hydrological alternation can dramatically influence riparian environments and shape riparian vegetation zonation. However, it was difficult to predict the status in the drawdown area of the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR), because the hydrological regime created by the dam involves both short periods of summer flooding and long-term winter impoundment for half a year. In order to examine the effects of hydrological alternation on plant diversity and biomass in the drawdown area of TGR, twelve sites distributed along the length of the drawdown area of TGR were chosen to explore the lateral pattern of plant diversity and above-ground biomass at the ends of growing seasons in 2009 and 2010. We recorded 175 vascular plant species in 2009 and 127 in 2010, indicating that a significant loss of vascular flora in the drawdown area of TGR resulted from the new hydrological regimes. Cynodon dactylon and Cyperus rotundus had high tolerance to short periods of summer flooding and long-term winter flooding. Almost half of the remnant species were annuals. Species richness, Shannon-Wiener Index and above-ground biomass of vegetation exhibited an increasing pattern along the elevation gradient, being greater at higher elevations subjected to lower submergence stress. Plant diversity, above-ground biomass and species distribution were significantly influenced by the duration of submergence relative to elevation in both summer and previous winter. Several million tonnes of vegetation would be accumulated on the drawdown area of TGR in every summer and some adverse environmental problems may be introduced when it was submerged in winter. We conclude that vascular flora biodiversity in the drawdown area of TGR has dramatically declined after the impoundment to full capacity. The new hydrological condition, characterized by long-term winter flooding and short periods of summer flooding, determined vegetation biodiversity and above-ground biomass patterns along the elevation gradient in the drawdown area.     

River ecosystem resilience to extreme flood events

Floods have a major influence in structuring river ecosystems. Considering projected increases in high‐magnitude rainfall events with climate change, major flooding events are expected to increase in many regions of the world. However, there is uncertainty about the effect of different flooding regimes and the importance of flood timing in structuring riverine habitats and their associated biotic communities. In addition, our understanding of community response is hindered by a lack of long‐term datasets to evaluate river ecosystem resilience to flooding. Here we show that in a river ecosystem studied for 30 years, a major winter flood reset the invertebrate community to a community similar to one that existed 15 years earlier. The community had not recovered to the preflood state when recurrent summer flooding 9 years later reset the ecosystem back to an even earlier community. Total macroinvertebrate density was reduced in the winter flood by an order of magnitude more than the summer flood. Meiofaunal invertebrates were more resilient to the flooding than macroinvertebrates, possibly due to their smaller body size facilitating greater access to in‐stream refugia. Pacific pink salmon escapement was markedly affected by the winter flood when eggs were developing in redds, compared to summer flooding, which occurred before the majority of eggs were laid. Our findings inform a proposed conceptual model of three possible responses to flooding by the invertebrate community in terms of switching to different states and effects on resilience to future flooding events. In a changing climate, understanding these responses is important for river managers to mitigate the biological impacts of extreme flooding effects.     

Pressurized gas transport in Amazonian floodplain trees

Trees of Central Amazonian whitewater floodplain forests are subjected to extended flood periods lasting several months. They must therefore be highly adapted to long-term flooding and to oxygen shortage in the soil and roots which is expected to be the main stress factor in this environment. The improvement of oxygen transport to the roots by pressurized gas transport, known for some tree species of the temperate zone, is one specific adaptation to flooding. To evaluate its significance, gas transport measurements were carried out under experimental conditions with saplings of five Amazonian tree species. Internal aeration of the roots was improved under conditions of pressurized gas transport as shown by polarographical measurements of oxygen exchange between root and rhizosphere. Tracer gas measurements using sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆) showed gas permeability of transport pathways between stem base and roots. Based on the data, we suppose that pressurized gas transport significantly contributes to internal aeration of roots in Amazonian floodplain saplings growing on the higher levels in the flooding gradient, with low water columns, and is an important adaptation for establishment in these temporarily inundated habitats also in the weeks of rising and lowering water levels.     

Biodiversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the drawdown zone of the Three Gorges Reservoir under different fertilization histories

Impoundment of the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR) has dramatically influenced the riparian environment and shaped a new drawdown zone, which has experienced long-term winter conditions and short periods of summer flooding. The community structure and diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi (AMF) were investigated in three areas with different fertilization histories [Area A (5 years of fertilization), Area B (3 years of fertilization) and Area C (no fertilization)] in the drawdown zone of the TGR. Altogether, 50 AMF species were identified; the genera Acaulospora, Funneliformis and Glomus were predominant. The AM fungal community differed among areas A, B and C. A higher isolation frequency and relative abundance of Acaulospora, Ambispora, Entrophospora and Paraglomus were observed in areas A and B; however, Claroideoglomus, Diversispora, Sclerocystis and Septoglomus were more abundant in Area C. The highest spore density occurred in Area C, and was slightly lower in Area A and lowest in Area B. Conversely, species richness and diversity indices (Shannon–Wiener and evenness indices) were the highest in Area A, followed by areas C and B. Based on nonmetric multidimensional scaling analyses, the distribution of AMF was influenced by plant host, fertilization practice and environmental factors. Among them, the soil physicochemical properties were the main drivers affecting AMF, in which three edaphic attributes (carbon/nitrogen ratio, available phosphorus and potassium content) were significantly correlated (P < 0.001) with the AM fungal community composition in the three areas of the drawdown zone of the TGR.     

Variation in ecosystem services of street tree assemblages can guide sustainable urban development

城市行道树集合生态服务功能变化研究及对城市可持续发展管理的启示     

Seasonal Dependent Effects of Flooding on Plant Species Survival and Zonation: a Comparative Study of 10 Terrestrial Grassland Species

Past research has provided compelling evidence that variation in flooding duration is the predominant factor underlying plant species distribution along elevation gradients in river floodplains. The role of seasonal variation in flooding, however, is far from clear. We addressed this seasonal effect for 10 grassland species by testing the hypothesis that all species can survive longer when flooded in winter than when flooded in summer. We carried out an inundation experiment under simulated conditions of summer and winter flooding in the greenhouse. The results showed that all species survived longer under winter floods than under summer floods. However, responses upon flooding were species-specific. All summer flood-tolerant species had high tolerance for winter floods as well, but summer flood sensitive species survived either a little longer, or dramatically longer when flooded under simulated winter conditions. Next, we examined whether winter or summer survival best predicted the lower distribution limits of the species as measured in a natural flooding gradient after an extremely long winter flood. We found a strong significant relationship between the lower distribution limits of species in the field and their tolerance to summer floods, although we measured the lower limits 14 years after the latest major summer flood. In contrast, no such significant relationship existed with species tolerance to winter floods. Some relatively intolerant species occurred at much higher floodplain elevations as was expected from their tolerance to winter inundation in the experiments. This suggests that zonation patterns as created by occasional summer floods may be maintained for a long time, probably due to the limited ability of species to re-colonise lower positions in the floodplain.     

Riparian vegetation’s responses to the new hydrological regimes from the Three Gorges Project: Clues to revegetation in reservoir water-level-fluctuation zone

The new hydrological regime brought about by the Three Gorges Project is the absolute opposite of the natural flood rhythms of the Yangtze River. Flooding timing, duration, frequency, rate of change and magnitude in the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR), as important factors in affecting riparian vegetation, are completely different from the natural Yangtze Rivers’. The riparian vegetation plays important roles in stabilizing riverbanks, maintaining local biodiversity and improving water quality. Pre-dam and postdam riparian vegetations along the Yangtze River basin in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area (TGRA) were investigated in 2001 and 2009, respectively. The investigation of pre-dam riparian vegetation in 2001 showed that about 405 vascular plant species belonging to 240 genera of 83 families were distributed in the natural water-level-fluctuation zone (WLFZ) of the Yangtze River. However, only 231 vascular plant species belonging to 169 genera of 61 families were found in the WFLZ of the TGR in 2009. The changes in riparian vegetation resulted in the formation of a bald WLFZ with a 30 m magnitude in the TGRA. Although certain perennial species could be repeatedly detected in both field surveys, these are unsuitable for revegetation in the WFLZ of the TGR. This unsuitability is due to their survival via seed germination, and death in subsequent winter flooding. We propose a list of local plants that may be used to recover and re-establish riparian vegetation in the WFLZ of the TGR. We suggest that numerous physiological experiments be performed to assess how the adaptable mechanisms of riparian plants from the TGRA will respond to winter flooding. Endangered wetland shrub species such as Rhamnus tzekweiensis and Buxus ichangensis, which are confined to the riverbanks of the Yangtze River in the TGRA, should be conserved.     

Spatial and temporal separation of littoral zone fishes of Lake Geneva (Switzerland-France)

The spatial (distance from the shore) and seasonal (summer-winter) distributions of the ichtyofauna in the littoral zone of Lake Geneva were studied between October 1991 and December 1992. Gill nets were set simultaneously at three different sites of a chosen littoral zone: shore, middle and far (50, 300 and 550 m from the shore, respectively).The results show that in summer more species and individuals are present in the littoral zone than in winter. Throughout the year, species richness is greater at the shore site than at the middle or far site. In summer, total abundance is greater at the far site, whereas there are more fish at the shore site during winter. Perch (juveniles and adults), roach and gudgeon (adults only), have maximum abundance during the summer, while lake trout, grayling and whitefish (adults) have maximum abundance during the winter. For five species (adults only) the site comparison shows spatial segregation of the habitats: greater numbers of perch are present at the far site while roach, tench, lake trout and grayling prefer the shore site.     

An example of the seasonal impact of sheep on colonisation by deciduous trees

Summary

Seasonal grazing treatments were begun in 1990 on two sites of bilberry moorland that lay 60–200 m from a strip of riverside woodland in Northern England. Treatments were summer grazing, winter grazing, year-round and no grazing, fences being moved in mid April and mid October each year to open or close plots. The main plant species, Calluna vulgaris, Empetrum nigrum and Vaccinium myrtillus, showed negligible response in cover or height to season of grazing, but colonisation by deciduous trees was much affected. On plots given summer protection (total area 2000 m²) 249 Sorbus aucuparia saplings were counted in 2000, together with one Quercus robur sapling, but no saplings were found in summer-grazed and year-round-grazed plots. Each winter the rowan saplings in the summer-protected plots were severely browsed by sheep, but they recovered in the next growing season. Their increasing trunk diameter and shoot increment up to 2000 suggested that some would soon escape herbivore control. But the fence moves did not take place in 2001,and in April 2002 these saplings were found to have been very heavily browsed. Nearly all survived but regrowth was much poorer in summer 2002 than summer 2000, so several more years of recovery are needed before it can be decided if summer protection from grazing allows succession to woodland at these sites.     

三峡库区生态系统服务功能重要性评价

在RS与GIS技术支持下,选择研究区比较重要的生物多样性保护、土壤保持、水源涵养和营养物质保持四个生态系统服务功能,建立生态系统服务功能重要性评价模型与方法,对三峡库区重庆段生态系统服务功能进行综合研究,定量揭示了研究区生态系统服务功能重要性程度及其空间分布规律.结果表明:(1)生物多样性保护高度重要以上地区的面积比达到了15％以上;极重要地区主要呈斑块状分布在东北部、中部和东南部.(2)土壤保持极重要区占据绝对优势地位,面积比为68.80％;土壤保持极重要区主要分布在万州及其东北部地区.(3)水源涵养一般重要区面积最大,其次为极重要地区;极重要区沿江河呈带状分布,高度重要区主要分布在极重要区两侧沿江河呈环带状分布.(4)营养物质保持一般重要区面积最大;其次是极重要区;极重要区基本呈条带形分布在植被覆盖较好的山脉及江河两侧.(5)生态系统服务功能极重要和高度重要区的面积占到了研究区总面积的近50％;极重要区基本沿主要江河两侧第一层分水岭和西部平行岭谷区的山脊呈条带形分布;高度重要区基本分布在极重要区两侧层环带形分布,少部分零散分布.     

三峡消落带生态系统研究文献计量分析

三峡消落带生态系统是一条特殊的生态脆弱带,其生态环境的特殊性及其对整个三峡库区的影响使得这一生态过渡区逐渐成为地学、环境科学、生态学等学科的研究热点。以CNKI和Web of science数据库为数据源,检索1989—2013年国内外发表的有关三峡消落带研究的论文,通过文献计量学方法,从多个角度分析了三峡消落带研究现状、进展及发展趋势,内容包括论文数量及发表年代分布、研究机构、发表期刊和重要主题等。1989—2013年间,国内外总共发表三峡消落带研究的论文478篇,其中中文论文436篇,英文论文42篇;文章数量逐年递增,特别是2009年以后,增长速率明显加快;消落带的研究机构主要分布在重庆、湖北和北京,重庆大学、西南大学和中国科学院武汉植物园发表论文数量在研究机构中名列前三;《生态学报》、《长江流域资源与环境》和《环境科学》3种期刊的载文数量最多,《生态学报》主要报道消落带植物研究成果,《长江流域资源与环境》关注的领域较为宽泛,《环境科学》主要报道土壤和环境问题的研究;研究地点主要分布在长江支流上,其中澎溪河流域的消落带面积比例最大,以该区域为研究对象的论文相对更多;生态是消落带研究最大的主题,土壤和植被是消落带研究的主要生态要素,磷、氮和重金属在土壤的循环过程是目前研究的主要生物地球化学过程;如何生态重建消落带生态系统是目前遇到最大的挑战之一。以后,需要加强三峡消落带的长时间序列的监测,及加强特殊水位脉动下物质在消落带内部、水生与陆生生态系统迁移过程的研究。     

Top‐Down Control of Reed Detritus Processing in a Lake Littoral Zone: Experimental Evidence of a Seasonal Compensation between Fish and Invertebrate Predation

We investigated whether predatory fish exert a top‐down control on reed leaf packs processing in a lake littoral zone through a trophic cascade. Exclosure experiments were repeated in summer and winter, under high and low natural fish abundance, respectively. Fish exclusion effects on detritus processing and fungal conditioning were consistent with trophic cascade predictions only in summer. In winter, however, results indicated that a trophic cascade was induced by predatory invertebrates. In both seasons, variations in detritivores abundance generally supported a cascade scenario, whereas several taxon‐specific departures occurred during the experimental periods. We conclude suggesting that predators may continuously regulate leaf detritus processing in lake littoral zones, through a seasonal shift in the relative contribution of fish and invertebrate predation. (© 2007 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Roost selection by the north Queensland long-eared bat Nyctophilus bifax in littoral rainforest in the Iluka World Heritage Area,New South Wales

Abstract The aim of this study was to describe the roosts of Nyctophilus bifax in littoral rainforest in Iluka Nature Reserve on the north coast of New South Wales. Radio-telemetry was used to track 17 bats in November 1988 (lactation season) and 11 in May 1989 (mating season) to 87 roosts in 49 trees within the littoral rainforest. The bats frequently changed roosts, which were clustered within a small area. During November, lactating females moved twins between diurnal roosts and some carried twins while foraging. Twins represented a load of up to 95% of their mother's bodyweight. Bats roosted communally in foliage and tree hollows, beneath peeling bark, among epiphytes, and between strangler figs and host trees. Hollows were used more frequently when bats were lactating, while the use of foliage roosts was greater during the mating season. Roosts were concentrated in four tree species, although a wide range of other tree species was used. Roost trees used in November were taller (17m) than those used in May (8. 2 m), and reflect selection of Syzygium leuhmannii and Acmena hemilampra, both trees of the forest interior. The converse applied for selection of Cupaniopsis anacardioides, a small tree of the littoral zone, in May. These results identify the need for conserving a diversity of roosts for this species of bat.     

Habitat, diet and food assimilation of Arctic charr under the winter ice in two subarctic lakes

The Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus populations of the subarctic lakes Takvatn and Fjellfrøsvatn, north Norway, concentrated in the littoral zones (0–15 m) of the lakes during the entire winter (December to May) despite very low temperatures (0·2 and 0·7° C). High prey availability, low predation and competition and comparatively better light under snow and ice in shallow compared with deep water are probable reasons. At ice break in June, all Arctic charr moved to the profundal zone for a brief period, probably in response to the sudden light increase and a profundal resource peak of chironomid pupae. In the summer, the Arctic charr are found in the pelagic, profundal and littoral zones of the lakes. These populations therefore perform regular habitat shifts between the littoral zone in the winter, the profundal zone at ice break and the whole lake in the summer and autumn. The fish fed continuously during winter despite the cold water and the poor light. Amphipods and chironomid larvae dominated the diet. Catch per unit effort, numbers of stomachs with food and food intake rates varied with the subarctic light cycle but were lowest after the winter solstice. The winter assimilation of energy was about equal to the standard metabolism in Takvatn but was higher in Fjellfrøsvatn. The assimilation increased in both lakes under the spring ice in May. The habitat choice, diet and energy assimilation indicate that the Arctic charr is well adapted to the extreme winter conditions of subarctic lakes.     

三峡库区消落带落羽杉(Taxodium distichum)与柳树(Salix matsudana)人工植被对土壤营养元素含量的影响

落羽杉与柳树被认为是三峡库区消落带植被修复的适生树种。2012年7月(T1)及2013年7月(T2)在消落带人工基地取样,研究了消落带人工植被(处理组)及裸地土壤(对照组)的营养元素含量,并对植被生长情况进行调查。结果表明:(1)对比处理组与对照组养分含量发现,T1时除土壤p H值外,其他养分含量在处理组与对照组间均存在差异。T2时只有p H值、磷(包括有效磷AP、全磷TP)、速效钾(AK)含量在处理组与对照组中差异显著。(2)对同一植被类型而言,T2时落羽杉土壤p H值与土壤有机质含量(OM)均显著低于T1,同样,T2时柳树实生土壤OM也显著降低;处理组土壤中碱解氮(AN)、AP、全钾(TK)含量极显著的低于淹水前,而TP含量却显著升高;与T1相比,T2时裸地土壤除AN含量降低、AK含量显著升高外,其它养分含量均未呈现显著差异。(3)相关性分析表明,土壤p H值与TP含量呈现极显著负相关,而OM与AN、AP、TK分别呈现出极显著正相关。AN、AP分别与TP表现出极显著负相关关系,而与TK表现出极显著正相关关系。TK与TP也呈现极显著的负相关关系。此外,植物高度、基径与冠幅三项生长指标与土壤中的p H值、OM、AN、AP(高度除外)、TK呈现出负相关的现象。研究表明,落羽杉与柳树人工植被对土壤养分的影响主要出现在水淹之前,进一步证实在三峡库区消落带开展科学的植被修复与重建值得提倡和肯定。     

Ungulate browsing in winter reduces the growth of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fraxinus</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acer</Emphasis> saplings in subsequent unbrowsed years

Browsing by ungulates has become a hotly debated issue in many European mountain forests in the past century. Acer pseudoplatanus L. and Fraxinus excelsior L. are broadleaved tree species that are preferentially browsed by roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in central Europe. We analyzed growth data from shaded saplings of both tree species to quantify the extent to which height growth after game browsing is reduced in subsequent, unbrowsed years in forest stands. Sixty saplings of F. excelsior and A. pseudoplatanus from forest stands at Albisriederberg (Switzerland) were available to us that had been dissected into pieces that then were split in the middle for counting tree rings and assessing ungulate damage. We fitted the von Bertalanffy growth equation to these height growth data and included a reduction factor for winter browsing. Both tree species showed significantly reduced height growth in unbrowsed years after one to several browsing events in winter, and this effect increased with the number of browsing events. Saplings with a high growth rate showed a higher growth reduction. After winter browsing, height growth of A. pseudoplatanus saplings was less affected in unbrowsed years than that of F. excelsior saplings. We conclude that browsed saplings of these species in forest stands are not able to compensate browsing-induced height loss, but that height differences between browsed and unbrowsed saplings probably increase over time. A comparison between our analysis and the parameters estimated using equations published by Eiberle for predicting age at 130 cm height suggests that our parameter values are rather conservative estimates of the growth reduction effect after winter browsing. Neither F. excelsior nor A. pseudoplatanus show a distinct pattern in browsing-induced growth reduction with respect to soil moisture, nutrient level, and altitude. We thus conclude that our results are likely to be valid for a wide range of forested sites.     

水位节律差异对三峡水库消落区不同物候类型1年生植物物种构成的影响

三峡水库蓄水后改变了原有长江自然的水位波动节律,并在三峡库区内形成了两种类型的消落区:蓄水前未经历过水淹的完全水库消落区,其水位节律夏低冬高;以及蓄水前属于自然消落区目前受蓄水和洪汛双重影响的消落区,其水位在冬季和夏季都存在高水位。这与自然消落区冬低夏高的水位节律均存在差别。1年生植物根据萌发结实特性可分为春萌秋实、冬萌夏实型植物和广适性植物3类。在不同消落区选取5个样地划分样带设置固定样方,涨水前和退水后调查发现:各消落区均存在3种1年生植物,但3种类型物种的比例和和优势度存在显著差异。只受夏季洪汛影响的自然消落区共发现1年生植物73种,冬萌夏实型植物以45种占优;而水位节律与之相反的完全水库消落区,1年生植物物种数为85种,其中春萌秋实型植物以45种以及较大的优势度成为该区域的优势1年生物种;双重影响消落区,1年生植物物种总数未明显下降,但是在蓄水和洪汛的双重影响下其种群大小相对较低。水位节律的巨大变化会引起1年生植物优势类型的显著改变,适合生长的1年生植物主要是因为其生长周期与淹没期不完全重叠而成为优势物种类型。     

Long-term Impacts of Contrasting Management of Large Ungulates in the Arctic Tundra-Forest Ecotone: Ecosystem Structure and Climate Feedback

The arctic forest-tundra ecotone (FTE) represents a major transition zone between contrasting ecosystems, which can be strongly affected by climatic and biotic factors. Expected northward expansion and encroachment on arctic tundra in response to climate warming may be counteracted by natural and anthropogenic processes such as defoliating insect outbreaks and grazing/browsing regimes. Such natural and anthropogenic changes in land cover can substantially affect FTE dynamics, alter ground albedo (index of the amount of solar energy reflected back into the atmosphere) and provide important feedbacks into the climate system. We took advantage of a naturally occurring contrast between reindeer grazing regimes in a border region between northern Finland and Norway which was recently defoliated by an outbreak of the geometrid moth. We examined ecosystem-wide contrasts between potentially year-round (but mainly summer) grazed (YRG) regions in Finland and mainly winter grazed (WG) regions in Norway. We also used a remotely sensed vegetation index and albedo to quantify effects on local energy balance and potential climate feedbacks. Although differences in soil characteristics and ground vegetation cover were small, we found dramatic differences in the tree layer component of the ecosystem. Regeneration of mountain birch stands appears to have been severely hampered in the YRG regime, by limiting regeneration from basal shoots and reestablishment of individual trees from saplings. This has led to a more open forest structure and a significant 5% increase in spring albedo in the summer grazed compared to the winter grazed regions. This supports recent suggestions that ecosystem processes in the Arctic can significantly influence the climate system, and that such processes must be taken into account when developing climate change scenarios and adaptation strategies.