Noise Normalizes Firing Output of Mouse Lateral Geniculate Nucleus Neurons

The output of individual neurons is dependent on both synaptic and intrinsic membrane properties. While it is clear that the response of an individual neuron can be facilitated or inhibited based on the summation of its constituent synaptic inputs, it is not clear whether subthreshold activity, (e.g. synaptic “noise”- fluctuations that do not change the mean membrane potential) also serve a function in the control of neuronal output. Here we studied this by making whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from 29 mouse thalamocortical relay (TC) neurons. For each neuron we measured neuronal gain in response to either injection of current noise, or activation of the metabotropic glutamate receptor-mediated cortical feedback network (synaptic noise). As expected, injection of current noise via the recording pipette induces shifts in neuronal gain that are dependent on the amplitude of current noise, such that larger shifts in gain are observed in response to larger amplitude noise injections. Importantly we show that shifts in neuronal gain are also dependent on the intrinsic sensitivity of the neuron tested, such that the gain of intrinsically sensitive neurons is attenuated divisively in response to current noise, while the gain of insensitive neurons is facilitated multiplicatively by injection of current noise- effectively normalizing the output of the dLGN as a whole. In contrast, when the cortical feedback network was activated, only multiplicative gain changes were observed. These network activation-dependent changes were associated with reductions in the slow afterhyperpolarization (sAHP), and were mediated at least in part, by T-type calcium channels. Together, this suggests that TC neurons have the machinery necessary to compute multiple output solutions to a given set of stimuli depending on the current level of network stimulation.     

Double Receptive Fields of Neurons of the Lateral Geniculate Body of the Cat

We studied spatial organization of the receptive fields (RF) of neurons of the lateral geniculate body (LGB) on unanesthetized cats (pretrigeminal brainstem section). After identification of localization and borders of the RF of the neuron under study, we scanned with a sufficient resolution the entire visual field and tried to find additional space zones, whose stimulation could influence the impulse activity of the neuron. These experiments demonstrated that 24 neurons of 167 examined units (14%) could react to the presentation of visual stimuli within the visual space outside the main RF, but we were unable to determine borders of these additional zones with a sufficient accuracy. In 12 neurons (7% of the group under study), localization, dimensions, and specific features of an additional RF (RF-2) could be clearly determined. As a rule, the center of the RF-2 was localized at a distance of 20-40^O; or even farther from the center of the main RF (RF-1). To activate the neuron from the RF-2, application of greater visual stimuli was necessary (as compared with stimulation of the RF-1). Thus, two RF of one and the same neuron had dissimilar spatial organizations and qualitatively differed from each other in their stationary and dynamic characteristics. Considering our findings, we hypothesize that the RF-2 of LGB neurons can play a certain role in perception of large objects within the visual field of the animal by promoting formation of the avoidance reaction.     

研究: 外膝状体神经元的亮度反应与感受野ON-OFF反应的关系

外膝体是视觉信息进入新皮层的主要通路,其编码亮度信息的神经机制还不清楚.我们采用随机呈现的连续快速变化(50 Hz)的均匀亮度刺激,显著地提高了猫外膝体神经元对均匀亮度的反应强度,通过反相关算法抽提出神经元的亮度反应函数.约81%的神经元的亮度反应函数为单调性上升或下降,有19%的神经元亮度反应函数为V型.通过分析这些神经元对亮度上升和下降的反应强度与感受野ON和OFF反应强度的关系,表明83%的神经元对亮度的反应模式是由其感受野ON-OFF反应的相对强度决定的,其余17%则与其感受野ON-OFF区的兴奋和抑制的变化相关.这些结果揭示了外膝体神经元编码亮度变化的机制.     

Morphology,Classification, and Distribution of the Projection Neurons in the Dorsal Lateral Geniculate Nucleus of the Rat

The morphology of confirmed projection neurons in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) of the rat was examined by filling these cells retrogradely with biotinylated dextran amine (BDA) injected into the visual cortex. BDA-labeled projection neurons varied widely in the shape and size of their cell somas, with mean cross-sectional areas ranging from 60–340 µm². Labeled projection neurons supported 7–55 dendrites that spanned up to 300 µm in length and formed dendritic arbors with cross-sectional areas of up to 7.0×10⁴ µm². Primary dendrites emerged from cell somas in three broad patterns. In some dLGN projection neurons, primary dendrites arise from the cell soma at two poles spaced approximately 180° apart. In other projection neurons, dendrites emerge principally from one side of the cell soma, while in a third group of projection neurons primary dendrites emerge from the entire perimeter of the cell soma. Based on these three distinct patterns in the distribution of primary dendrites from cell somas, we have grouped dLGN projection neurons into three classes: bipolar cells, basket cells and radial cells, respectively. The appendages seen on dendrites also can be grouped into three classes according to differences in their structure. Short “tufted” appendages arise mainly from the distal branches of dendrites; “spine-like” appendages, fine stalks with ovoid heads, typically are seen along the middle segments of dendrites; and “grape-like” appendages, short stalks that terminate in a cluster of ovoid bulbs, appear most often along the proximal segments of secondary dendrites of neurons with medium or large cell somas. While morphologically diverse dLGN projection neurons are intermingled uniformly throughout the nucleus, the caudal pole of the dLGN contains more small projection neurons of all classes than the rostral pole.     

Predictive Feedback Can Account for Biphasic Responses in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus

Biphasic neural response properties, where the optimal stimulus for driving a neural response changes from one stimulus pattern to the opposite stimulus pattern over short periods of time, have been described in several visual areas, including lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), primary visual cortex (V1), and middle temporal area (MT). We describe a hierarchical model of predictive coding and simulations that capture these temporal variations in neuronal response properties. We focus on the LGN-V1 circuit and find that after training on natural images the model exhibits the brain's LGN-V1 connectivity structure, in which the structure of V1 receptive fields is linked to the spatial alignment and properties of center-surround cells in the LGN. In addition, the spatio-temporal response profile of LGN model neurons is biphasic in structure, resembling the biphasic response structure of neurons in cat LGN. Moreover, the model displays a specific pattern of influence of feedback, where LGN receptive fields that are aligned over a simple cell receptive field zone of the same polarity decrease their responses while neurons of opposite polarity increase their responses with feedback. This phase-reversed pattern of influence was recently observed in neurophysiology. These results corroborate the idea that predictive feedback is a general coding strategy in the brain.     

Early Postnatal Development of the Lamination in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus A-Layers in Cats

The early postnatal development of the A-layers of the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (LGNd) was investigated in kittens aged 0–34 days by immunohistochemistry for the selective marker for neuronal differentiation (NeuN protein) and parvalbumin. We report two new facts about the LGNd development. First, there is a transient stratification of NeuN labelling in layer A, and to a lesser extent in layer A1, in kittens aged 0 and 4 days. Second, a transient population of large cells that are located between the LGNd A-layers (interlaminar cells) showed high expression levels of both NeuN and parvalbumin. These neurons possessed both the morphological and immunohistochemical features, similar to cells in the neighbouring perigeniculate nucleus. Both NeuN-stratification and double-stained interlaminar cells gradually disappeared during the second postnatal week, and almost completely vanished by the opening of the critical period. We discuss a possible linkage between these observed transitory networks and the ON-/OFF- and X-/Y-cells development and propose that the data obtained reflect the functioning of the early environmentally independent geniculate networks.     

Characteristics of Gamma-Oscillations in Responses of Neurons of the Cat Lateral Geniculate Body

There were studied characteristics of gamma-oscillations in responses of neurons of the lateral geniculate body (LGB) in cat to exposure in their receptive fields (RF) of half-tone and binary test images. The gamma-oscillations were observed in 38.8% of cases (69 cells). The spectral characteristics (SC) (the band 20–100 Hz) of the neuronal responses to adequate stimuli (on- and off-responses correspondingly of on- and off-neurons) were analyzed. The total of 5930 poststimulus histograms (PSTH) of responses constructed from 177 900 neuronal impulse responses were considered. The mean value of the SC dominant frequencies of the whole sample of the neuronal responses amounted to 44.74 ± 21.46 Hz. In this cell sample, the neurons were revealed, which generated oscillations with markedly different frequencies in response to the same stimuli. Based on this property, three types of neurons were determined, with the mean oscillation frequencies of 26.95 ± 4.35, 52.02 ± 9.05, and 85.79 ± 7.19 Hz. The histograms of distribution of peak frequency values in SC of the neuronal responses and of index values of these oscillation peaks also revealed three maxima that corresponded to the frequencies of the three described types of neurons. The mean values of dominant frequencies of gamma-oscillations in responses of all three types of neurons remained constant (within the limits of dispersion) at changes of spatial-brightness parameters of test stimuli as well as at changes of the neuronal excitation level (the number of impulses in responses). The oscillation index values of dominant frequencies depended on parameters of the test images and correlated with the neuronal excitation level (the coefficient of correlation was 0.78 from data of 5930 CX). The suggestion is made about the existence in the neuronal network of the synchronization mechanisms functioning on the principle of multiple synchronization.      

Repetitive and Retinotopically Restricted Activation of the Dorsal Lateral Geniculate Nucleus with Optogenetics

Optogenetics allows the control of cellular activity using focused delivery of light pulses. In neuroscience, optogenetic protocols have been shown to efficiently inhibit or stimulate neuronal activity with a high temporal resolution. Among the technical challenges associated with the use of optogenetics, one is the ability to target a spatially specific population of neurons in a given brain structure. To address this issue, we developed a side-illuminating optical fiber capable of delivering light to specific sites in a target nucleus with added flexibility through rotation and translation of the fiber and by varying the output light power. The designed optical fiber was tested in vivo in visual structures of ChR2-expressing transgenic mice. To assess the spatial extent of neuronal activity modulation, we took advantage of the hallmark of the visual system: its retinotopic organization. Indeed, the relative position of ganglion cells in the retina is transposed in the cellular topography of both the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in the thalamus and the primary visual cortex (V1). The optical fiber was inserted in the LGN and by rotating it with a motor, it was possible to sequentially activate different neuronal populations within this structure. The activation of V1 neurons by LGN projections was recorded using intrinsic optical imaging. Increasing light intensity (from 1.4 to 8.9 mW/mm²) led to increasing activation surfaces in V1. Optogenetic stimulation of the LGN at different translational and rotational positions was associated with different activation maps in V1. The position and/or orientation of the fiber inevitably varied across experiments, thus limiting the capacity to pool data. With the optogenetic design presented here, we demonstrate for the first time a transitory and spatially-concise activation of a deep neuronal structure. The optogenetic design presented here thus opens a promising avenue for studying the function of deep brain structures.     

The Subcellular Distribution of T-Type Ca2+ Channels in Interneurons of the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus

Inhibitory interneurons (INs) in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) provide both axonal and dendritic GABA output to thalamocortical relay cells (TCs). Distal parts of the IN dendrites often enter into complex arrangements known as triadic synapses, where the IN dendrite plays a dual role as postsynaptic to retinal input and presynaptic to TC dendrites. Dendritic GABA release can be triggered by retinal input, in a highly localized process that is functionally isolated from the soma, but can also be triggered by somatically elicited Ca²⁺-spikes and possibly by backpropagating action potentials. Ca²⁺-spikes in INs are predominantly mediated by T-type Ca²⁺-channels (T-channels). Due to the complex nature of the dendritic signalling, the function of the IN is likely to depend critically on how T-channels are distributed over the somatodendritic membrane (T-distribution). To study the relationship between the T-distribution and several IN response properties, we here run a series of simulations where we vary the T-distribution in a multicompartmental IN model with a realistic morphology. We find that the somatic response to somatic current injection is facilitated by a high T-channel density in the soma-region. Conversely, a high T-channel density in the distal dendritic region is found to facilitate dendritic signalling in both the outward direction (increases the response in distal dendrites to somatic input) and the inward direction (the soma responds stronger to distal synaptic input). The real T-distribution is likely to reflect a compromise between several neural functions, involving somatic response patterns and dendritic signalling.     

Antagonism of 5-Hydroxytryptamine by Methiothepin shown in Micro-electrophoretic Studies of Neurones in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus

THERE has been little success in the search for a specific antagonist of the actions of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) on central neurones, although several compounds reduce the effects of both tryptamine derivatives and catecholamines in the central nervous system^1,2. The recent report that lysergic acid diethylamide blocked the excitant action of 5-HT, but not that of noradrenaline, on medullary reticular neurones³ has not been confirmed⁴. Moreover, an earlier investigation of olfactory bulb neurones indicated that lysergic acid diethylamide blocked the action of noradrenaline more readily than that of 5-HT⁵.     

Epibatidine Blocks Eye-Specific Segregation in Ferret Dorsal Lateral Geniculate Nucleus during Stage III Retinal Waves

The segregation and maintenance of eye-specific inputs in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) during early postnatal development requires the patterned spontaneous activity of retinal waves. In contrast to the development of the mouse, ferret eye-specific segregation is not complete at the start of stage III glutamatergic retinal waves, and the remaining overlap is limited to the C/C1 lamina of the dLGN. To investigate the role of patterned spontaneous activity in this late segregation, we disrupted retinal waves pharmacologically for 5 day windows from postnatal day (P) 10 to P25. Multi-electrode array recordings of the retina in vitro reveal that the cholinergic agonist epibatidine disrupts correlated retinal activity during stage III waves. Epibatidine also prevents the segregation of eye-specific inputs in vivo during that period. Our results reveal a novel role for cholinergic influence on stage III retinal waves as an instructive signal for the continued segregation of eye-specific inputs in the ferret dLGN.     

Efferent Projections of Prokineticin 2 Expressing Neurons in the Mouse Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus is the predominant circadian clock in mammals. To function as a pacemaker, the intrinsic timing signal from the SCN must be transmitted to different brain regions. Prokineticin 2 (PK2) is one of the candidate output molecules from the SCN. In this study, we investigated the efferent projections of PK2-expressing neurons in the SCN through a transgenic reporter approach. Using a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) transgenic mouse line, in which the enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP) reporter gene expression was driven by the PK2 promoter, we were able to obtain an efferent projections map from the EGFP-expressing neurons in the SCN. Our data revealed that EGFP-expressing neurons in the SCN, hence representing some of the PK2-expressing neurons, projected to many known SCN target areas, including the ventral lateral septum, medial preoptic area, subparaventricular zone, paraventricular nucleus, dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus, lateral hypothalamic area and paraventricular thalamic nucleus. The efferent projections of PK2-expressing neurons supported the role of PK2 as an output molecule of the SCN.     

Reorganization of Receptive Fields of Cortical Field 21a Neurons and Formation of Responses to Moving Visual Stimuli

Using extracellular recording of spike activity from single neurons of field 21a of the cat neocortex, we examined in detail the spatial organization of receptive fields (RFs) of such cells after conditions of presentation of an immobile blinking light spot (a static RF) and moving visual stimuli (dynamic RFs). As was shown, the excitability of different RF subfields of a group of neurons possessing homogeneous on–off organization of the static RF changes significantly depended on the contrast, shape, dimension, orientation, and direction of movement of the applied mobile visual stimulus. This is manifested in changes in the number of discharge centers and shifts of their spatial localization. A hypothesis on the possible role of synchronous activation of the neurons neighboring the cell under study in the formation of an additional neuronal mechanism providing specialization of neuronal responses is proposed.     

全细胞膜片钳研究离体小鼠内侧膝状体亚核神经元电生理特性

内侧膝状体(medial geniculate body,MGB)是听觉通路在丘脑的重要中继站,为了探究小鼠MGB亚核神经元的电生理特性,使用离体全细胞膜片钳技术记录到99个MGB神经元,其中腹侧核(ventral division of MGB,MGBv)神经元36个,背侧核(dorsal division of MGB,MGBd)神经元34个,内侧核(medial division of MGB,MGBm)神经元29个。结果表明,神经元对去极化电流的反应具有爆发型(bursting)(16.2%,16/99)和紧张型(tonic)(83.8%,83/99)两种发放模式,并且所有MGB神经元在超极化电流刺激结束后均有去极化反弹(rebound),而仅有少数神经元(17.2%,17/99)在超极化刺激过程中有超极化激活的内向电流(hyperpolarization-activated inward current,I_h)。此外,MGB各亚核神经元的静息膜电位(resting membrane potential,RMP)和激活阈值(active threshold)存在显著性差异(P0.05)。以上表明MGB各亚核的电生理特性存在差异,该结果有助于理解MGB各亚核在听觉信息处理中产生不同功能的原因。     

Independent Component Analysis of Temporal Sequences Subject to Constraints by Lateral Geniculate Nucleus Inputs Yields All the Three Major Cell Types of the Primary Visual Cortex

Information maximization has long been suggested as the underlying coding strategy of the primary visual cortex (V1). Grouping image sequences into blocks has been shown by others to improve agreement between experiments and theory. We have studied the effect of temporal convolution on the formation of spatiotemporal filters—that is, the analogues of receptive fields—since this temporal feature is characteristic to the response function of lagged and nonlagged cells of the lateral geniculate nucleus. Concatenated input sequences were used to learn the linear transformation that maximizes the information transfer. Learning was accomplished by means of principal component analysis and independent component analysis. Properties of the emerging spatiotemporal filters closely resemble the three major types of V1 cells: simple cells with separable receptive field, simple cells with nonseparable receptive field, and complex cells.