Recreated practices by Mapuche women that strengthen place identity in new urban spaces of residence in Santiago,Chile

The phenomenon of migration to cities by indigenous Mapuche people of Chile is associated with various consequences, such as the loss of ethnic identity and cultural practices. This study aims to describe how ethnic identity is maintained through the recreation of ancestral cultural practices that Mapuche women promote in their families, generating identification to new spaces of residence. This qualitative research draws on analyses of forty-eight interviews conducted with twelve families from four neighbourhoods in Santiago. The study reveals ways in which key traditional Mapuche practices are translated and recreated through the processes of place-referent continuity and place-congruent continuity in new urban areas of residence which in turn express variant forms of ethnic identity and everyday politics of care that extend beyond folkloric notions of rural indigeneity and more static political ideologies of ethno-national autonomy.     

Indigenous Knowledge and Management of Araucaria Araucana Forest in the Chilean Andes: Implications for Native Forest Conservation

Southern Chile experienced serious deforestation during the past century and it is projected that by the year 2025 Chile will be devoid of native forests. One of the most important endemic tree species of the country and at the same time one of the most endangered ones is Araucaria araucana (Mol.) C. Koch, the monkey-puzzle tree. It grows in the Andes Mountains, homeland of the indigenous Mapuche Pewenche people who depend on this tree. This paper is based on participatory field research with a Mapuche Pewenche community in the southern Chilean Andes on their ecological knowledge, values, use and management of the Araucaria araucana forest. It attempts to reveal how indigenous people and their knowledge contribute to the sustainable management of these forests. The paper (1) illustrates the complexity of indigenous ecological knowledge of Araucaria araucana and its efficacy in native forest management, (2) explores the link between the conservation and use of biodiversity by the indigenous people, and (3) provides answers relevant to native forest management and conservation strategies ex-situ and in-situ incorporating indigenous and scientific knowledge, thus providing a contribution towards integrated natural resource management.     

Chile's Presential sea proposal: Implications for straddling stocks and the international law of fisheries

Abstract

Despite rapid evolution in international fisheries law and establishment of the exclusive economic zone (EEZ), straddling stocks still remain susceptible to heavy harvesting in high seas areas by distant‐water fishing states there by undermining coastal state management. The notion mar presencial (presential sea) has recently been proposed by Chile as a solution for the problem of straddling stocks. The presential sea concept was nationally designed and promoted to curtail such foreign fishing in areas adjacent to Chile's EEZ. This article examines the presential sea as a geostrategic concept, its justification for being, and the question of its permissibility under contemporary international fisheries law. Attention is also given to recent international developments that challenge the legal viability of the presential sea concept. The authors conclude that if this concept were to be widely adopted by coastal states, the traditional freedom to fish on the high seas might be severely compromised. The preferable legal solution is to work within the parameters set out by the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, more particularly through bilateral negotiations between coastal states and fishing states, as well as regional fishery commissions that could manage activities in the region.     

Non-indigenous species contribute equally to biofouling communities in international vs local ports in the Biobío region,Chile

Abstract

Growing coastal urbanization together with the intensification of maritime traffic are major processes explaining the increasing rate of biological introductions in marine environments. To investigate the link between international maritime traffic and the establishment of non-indigenous species (NIS) in coastal areas, biofouling communities in three international and three nearby local ports along 100?km of coastline in south-central Chile were compared using settlement panels and rapid assessment surveys. A larger number of NIS was observed in international ports, as expected in these ‘invasion hubs’. However, despite a few environmental differences between international and local ports, the two port categories did not display significant differences regarding NIS establishment and contribution to community structure over the studied period (1.5 years). In international ports, the free space could be a limiting factor for NIS establishment. The results also suggest that local ports should be considered in NIS surveillance programs in Chile.     

Controversies in strategy of marine fisheries development between eastern and western countries

Abstract

The expansion of distant‐water fishing activities of the Eastern countries to date is causing not only a growing concern by the coastal nations but also interest in the theoretical principles and criteria applied for developing a strategy of fishery development in these states. Obviously, there are many discrepancies between Western and Eastern theories in this field. Among them we can quote the concept of inexhaustibility of the ocean living resources, both traditional and new resources. This concept supports a further catch increase. The key problem lies in technological progress. Pure economic criteria are less important factors because the principal task of Eastern fisheries is to stave off shortages of animal proteins in local markets. Consequently, only maximum utilization of fishery resources is accepted. The importance of marine fisheries lies also in generating employment opportunities, principally in land‐related activities. Eastern distant‐water fisheries can continue to develop if the principle of surplus catches and historic rights is respected by coastal nations. Freedom of open‐sea resources utilization should be maintained. The traditional management system of world fisheries is the most desirable solution for future sea regimens. International cooperation in fisheries should be considered not only in economic terms but also as a source of political gains.     

Northwest atlantic fisheries arrangements: A test of the species approach

Abstract

The United States government has advanced a proposal for a “species”; approach to the resolution of problems in the management and distribution of living marine resources. Under this approach, the management and distribution of the stocks of coastal species of fish would be handled by negotiation among interested parties on a stock‐by‐stock basis, with certain preferential rights accorded to the coastal state. This approach is now being tested in the developments taking place in the arrangements for the Northwest Atlantic fisheries. Here, IS nations agreed to divide up among themselves the annual yields of 14 separate stocks of fish. In addition, it has now been proposed that there be a limit on the total amount of fishing effort and a division of the total among states. The controls are based solely on the physical attributes of fishing and fail to take account of economic consequences. Because of this, questions can be raised about the viability of the arrangements and of the “species”; approach to the international law of fisheries.     

Insulin resistance in Chileans of European and indigenous descent: evidence for an ethnicity x environment interaction

Background

Effects of urbanisation on diabetes risk appear to be greater in indigenous populations worldwide than in populations of European origin, but the reasons are unclear. This cross-sectional study aimed to determine whether the effects of environment (Rural vs. Urban), adiposity, fitness and lifestyle variables on insulin resistance differed between individuals of indigenous Mapuche origin compared to those of European origin in Chile.

Methodology/Principal Findings

123 Rural Mapuche, 124 Urban Mapuche, 91 Rural European and 134 Urban European Chilean adults had blood taken for determination of HOMA-estimated insulin resistance (HOMA_IR) and underwent assessment of physical activity/sedentary behaviour (using accelerometry), cardiorespiratory fitness, dietary intake and body composition. General linear models were used to determine interactions with ethnicity for key variables. There was a significant “ethnicity x environment” interaction for HOMA_IR (Mean±SD; Rural Mapuche: 1.65±2.03, Urban Mapuche: 4.90±3.05, Rural European: 0.82±0.61, Urban European: 1.55±1.34, p _{(interaction)} = 0.0003), such that the effect of urbanisation on HOMA_IR was greater in Mapuches than Europeans. In addition, there were significant interactions (all p<0.004) with ethnicity for effects of adiposity, sedentary time and physical activity on HOMA_IR, with greater effects seen in Mapuches compared to Europeans, an observation that persisted after adjustment for potential confounders.

Conclusions/Significance

Urbanisation, adiposity, physical activity and sedentary behaviour influence insulin resistance to a greater extent in Chilean Mapuches than Chileans of European descent. These findings have implications for the design and implementation of lifestyle strategies to reduce metabolic risk in different ethnic groups, and for understanding of the mechanisms underpinning human insulin resistance.     

Who Owns the Water? The Relation as Unfinished Objectivation in the Mapuche Lived World

Anthropological approaches to relations have customarily relied on ethnographic accounts of relations empirically observed through fieldwork, overlooking, in general, the ways in which the very notion of relation is locally conceptualised and put into practice. In this article, we provide a general characterisation of how relations are theorised and practiced in indigenous southern Chile. We propose the expression ‘unfinished objectivation’ to refer to an ideal type of relationship in the Mapuche lived world, which corresponds neither to a subject–object dichotomy nor to a totally intersubjective model. Unfinished objectivation presupposes a type of relation in which those entities that are connected are submitted to the force of one another, but only to the unstable and contingent point before which they lose their irreducible autonomy and agency. To explore the model of unfinished objectivation we focus on the human–water relationship, which illustrates the tension between the need for objectivation, as well as recognition of the subjectivity of beings involved in the relationship. Nowhere is this tension clearer than in conflicts over water rights and ownership status, which have arisen from the commodification of water resources in neoliberal Chile.     

The law of the sea and management of anadromous fish stocks

Abstract

Unilateral declarations of 200‐mi fishing zones by coastal states are likely to find universal recognition in new articles of international law. These probably will conform to the Single Negotiating Text currently under discussion in continuing sessions of the Third Conference on the Law of the Sea. The articles of this Text are clearly designed to protect and strengthen the fisheries rights of coastal states. Ironically, the new rules may prove counterproductive in respect of the major salmon stocks that migrate beyond 200‐mi limits. Effective protection of state‐of‐origin rights on the high seas beyond these limits will be difficult. Distant water fishing fleets experiencing reduced access to 200‐mi coastal zones will be tempted to increase, their efforts on stocks found in the remaining high seas. Salmon interception by neighboring states will also remain a problem. The article analyzes protective strategies and accommodations that may be pursued by states of origin.     

Traditional Mapuche ecological knowledge in Patagonia,Argentina: fishes and other living beings inhabiting continental waters,as a reflection of processes of change

Background

Understanding how people interpret environmental change and develop practices in response to such change is essential to comprehend human resource use. In the cosmology of the American indigenous peoples, as among the Mapuche people, freshwater systems are considered a living entity, where animals have an enormous role to play in the universe of meaning. However, human adaptive responses to freshwater system dynamics are scarcely examined. In this work a survey is carried out in three Mapuche communities of Argentine Patagonia to assess their traditional knowledge of the fishes and other non-human living beings that inhabit lakes and rivers. Both material and symbolic aspects are included, as are the differences in knowledge and use of the fishes between past and present times.

Methods

Our methods were based on a quali-quantitative fieldwork approach. In-depth interviews were carried out with 36 individuals from three rural Mapuche populations in Neuquén province (Patagonia, Argentina). Free listing was used for inquiring about fish knowledge and use. Fishes were identified scientifically and ethnotaxonomically. In-depth analysis of the discourses was conducted, documenting the recognition, perception, and cultural significance of fluvial environments and their inhabitants. Quantitative survey results were analyzed with categorical statistical methods.

Results

The body of knowledge of the communities studied reflects the socio-environmental changes experienced by Patagonian freshwater bodies. According to local perception, non-human beings live in these water bodies, guarding the environment, and they should not be disturbed. At present, five different fish species are identified, three of which are exotic, having been introduced at the beginning of the 20th century by the white man. These exotic trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss and Salvelinus fontinalis) are considered ill omens, indicators of the white man’s presence, and therefore their appearance presages negative events for the families. In addition, we found that Mapuche people differentiate fish species mainly by morphological, organoleptic and ecological attributes. Current consumption of fish by Mapuche communities is sporadic, in accordance with bibliography and ancient tales. Several fishing tools are used, including modern elements.

Conclusions

Our data enable us to characterise dynamic traditional knowledge in these communities, which is flexible in nature and adaptable to new situations, demonstrated by the incorporation not only of new species but also new fishing tools. It also seems that new significances become absorbed in synchrony with the advance or arrival of exotic and invasive species. For the Mapuche, the presence of the white man heralded by exotic trouts speaks of how a recent event, such as the introduction of the salmonids, is already incorporated into Mapuche symbolism. Mapuche traditional knowledge and cosmovision on the use of fish and waters, a vision which promotes respect and the avoidance of actions that could disturb the beings (animals and sacred or mythological characters) that inhabit and take care of them should be fostered as part of management plans of regional natural resources. This paper contributes to the broader literature on freshwater resource management by providing empirical evidence of the critical role of local perceptions in promoting the sustainable management of natural resources.

     

Implications of the UNCLOS Marine Scientific Research Regime for the Current Negotiations on Access and Benefit Sharing of Marine Genetic Resources in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction

Abstract

Access to marine genetic resources (MGRs) in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) and the sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of these resources are among the most contentious at the UN Intergovernmental Conference on Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction. This article examines the applicability of the marine scientific research (MSR) regime of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) to the access and benefit-sharing issues. It concludes that the MSR regime of UNCLOS provides the legal basis for setting up nonmonetary-benefit sharing obligations, including the dissemination of information, data, and research results concerning MGRs at the UN negotiations on marine biodiversity in the ABNJ.     

Some implications of ocean research

Abstract

The funding of much of ocean research is justified on the basis of expected benefits. Such research also has political implications relating to the law of the sea and to the transfer of technology. These implications are illustrated in an analysis of up‐welling research. Potential benefits include the prediction of fishery yields, the forecasting of weather and climate, and the location and assessment of nonliving resources. Because of the location of coastal upwelling, many developing countries are concerned with sharing in these benefits. This concern has affected negotiations over control of marine scientific research in the law‐of‐the‐sea negotiations and is related to the need to develop scientific capability in such countries.     

The contested rewe: sacred sites,misunderstandings, and ontological pluralism in Mapuche land negotiations

Sacred sites lie at the core of indigenous peoples' land claims and negotiations with the state. These sites are often subject to accusations of inauthenticity by state actors, which potentially lead to the delegitimization of claims over ancestral land. This article argues that misunderstandings in Mapuche land negotiations in Chile do not originate as strategic refusals to understand, but rather in a form of understanding which aims to make radical differences commensurable within the logics of statecraft and national society. In the process of cultural translation, the ontological principles that make certain places sacred in the Mapuche lived world are not recognized, resulting in the transformation of these sites into symbols of identity strategically employed for political ends.     

Towards a tuwün wariache? Place-making and creative acts of traversing in the Mapuche city

This article addresses experiences of belonging and place-making among indigenous Mapuche youths in Santiago, Chile. Moving from a collaborative ethnography, it elaborates on the emplacement of the tuwün (place of origin) – usually linked to ancestral territories – within the city, and the meanings this shift entails. Furthering knowledge on indigenous spatiality by addressing migration, the analysis focuses on the ambivalent ways in which memory, affect, and power relations are embedded in urban materialities, and are negotiated through ‘acts of traversing’. The significant relationship between persons and places is conceived as mediated by movement, expanding on the creative possibilities of routing. Moreover, drawing on practice-based methods, the article argues for a shared engagement with research participants in order to gain a deeper understanding of the ways in which place- and self-making in contexts of migration encompass both rupture and creative reappropriation, contributing to current debates on displacement and the sense of place.     

Indigenous resource rights and conservation of the monkey-puzzle tree (Araucaria araucana, araucariaceae): A case study from Southern Chile

This article outlines the ethnobotanical and economic importance of the monkey-puzzle tree (Araucaria araucana,), a long-lived conifer endemic to the temperate forests of Chile and Argentina. It also assesses the connection between indigenous resource rights and environmental conservation by examining the history of the tree’s use in Ralco Lepoy, an indigenous community of 800 inhabitants located in the Andes of southern Chile. Primary data were collected through interviews and field observations. Secondary data were collected through archival research in national and provincial capitals. Self-determination and territorial rights are important factors in the indigenous interest in and commitment to the conservation of the monkey-puzzle tree. A complementary approach to indigenous land rights and environmental protection may be an appropriate strategy to decentralize conservation efforts and ensure local participation in developing sustainable resource management plans.     

Parental transmission of ethnic identification in mixed couples in Latin America: the Mapuche case

This study analyses the ethnic identification of children of mixed couples among the Mapuche ethnic group in Chile using census data. The Mapuche are characterized by high exogamy, providing an extreme case of the Latin American pattern of tolerance towards intermarriage. We find that ethnic identification of children of mixed couples is high although it tends to weaken outside the native homeland. Furthermore, education does not increase the classification of children of mixed couples outside of the ethnic group. These findings contravene not only the Brazilian pattern of whitening but also predictions by assimilation theories, and suggest a process of indigenous awareness for families outside the native homeland.     

Indigenous in the city: the politics of urban Mapuche identity in Chile

In this article, I analyse how urban Mapuche indigenous organizations in Chile conduct politics, both externally in relation to the state and internally in relation to other Mapuches. I suggest that the state creates the context for their politics through enacting centuries of policies that put Mapuche identity ‘under siege’. My analysis shows that urban Mapuche organizations respond to this context in three central ways. Some organizations refuse the moniker ‘urban’ and are temporarily urban. Others embrace their urbanity and are adamantly urban. Still others try to overcome the rural-urban divide to become reconciled urban. Each of these strategies deploys ideas of authenticity in different ways, opening possibilities for different kinds of political alliances. My research argues that when the stakes are high for claiming a racial or ethnic identity, choosing which aspects of identity on which to base political demands has profound political consequences.     

The maintenance of wild edible plant gathering in a Mapuche community of patagonia

The Mapuche communities of Argentina and Chile have a vast knowledge of useful plants from temperate forests of Patagonia. However, present processes of transculturation and uprooting seem to have caused a decline in wild plant gathering. This is a case study of a Mapuche community that now lives far away from the forests that their ancestors inhabited. Nineteen families from the Rams Mapuche community (83% of the total population) were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire, with the aim of finding out which edible wild species are known and still used, and what factors, according to the people perception, have caused the decline. People mentioned a total of 49 edible wild plants including four types of resources: Araucaria araucana seeds, the fruits and roots of bushes and herbs, and leaves of edible weeds. Factors such as the difficulty access to forests which no longer belong to them, drought and soil deterioration from overgrazing were indicated by people acting negatively on the preservation of the knowledge of plants in the younger generations.     

Co-management Policy Can Reduce Resilience in Traditionally Managed Marine Ecosystems

Best-practice environmental policy often suggests co-management of marine resources as a means of achieving sustainable development. Here we consider the impacts of superimposing co-management policy, in the form of territorial user rights for fishers over an existing traditional community-based natural-resource management system in Chile. We consider a broad definition of co-management that includes a spectrum of arrangements between governments and user groups described by different levels of devolution of power. We used participatory rural appraisal techniques and questionnaires to understand the mechanisms that underpin the traditional management system for the bull-kelp “cochayuyo” (Durvillaea antarctica). Traditional management was based on the allocation of informal access rights through a lottery system. This system was controlled by a complex web of traditional institutions that were shown to be successful in terms of equity and resilience. Using a similar approach, we analyzed the effects of superimposing a government-led co-management policy into this traditional system. Two major effects of the new policy were encountered. First, traditional institutions were weakened, which had negative effects on the levels of trust within the community and intensified conflict among users. Second, the management system’s adaptive capacity was reduced, thereby jeopardizing the ecosystem’s resilience. Our results suggest that the devolution of power to this kind of fisher community still has not reached the level required for fishers to legally address the local deficiencies of the Chilean co-management policy. Additionally, legal adjustments must be made to accommodate traditionally managed ecosystems that offer benefits comparable to those mandated under the formal policy. A fuller understanding of the interactions between co-management and traditional institutions can help us to identify ways to promote resilience and facilitate equal access by mitigating the potential negative effects of co-management policy and informing its future implementation.     

Predator–rodent–plant interactions along a coast–inland gradient in Fennoscandian tundra

Spatial variation in the strength of trophic cascades in arctic tundra has been related to flows of subsidies across ecosystem boundaries. Here, we ask whether the input of marine subsidies in tundra systems would cause spatial variation in the strength of rodent–plant interactions between coastal areas, where predators have access to marine‐derived resources, and non‐subsidized inland areas of northern Fennoscandia. We present a detailed evaluation of predator–rodent–vegetation interactions along a coast‐inland gradient, during the 2011 rodent outbreak and the two following decline years, by using direct assessments of rodent impacts and tracing of marine‐derived nutrients in the food web. Our results revealed that the main rodent predator during summer, the long‐tailed jaeger Stercorarius longicaudus, did not benefit from marine resources while breeding (relative dietary proportion in chicks’ diet = 0–3%). Contrary to this pattern, parasitic jaegers S. parasiticus, bred exclusively near the coast and preyed effectively on both marine resources (41% of chicks’ diet) and rodents (12%). Mammalian predators also showed a higher activity during winter near the coast. Despite overall higher predator numbers, no evidence was found for lower rodent population growth rates during the three monitoring summers and for weaker rodent grazing impacts in the coastal area. Instead, we documented pronounced damages caused by lemmings and voles on bryophytes and vascular plants, especially dwarf shrubs (e.g. Vaccinum myrtillus) all along the coast–inland gradient. Taken together, our results did not support the hypothesis that marine subsidies would trigger a trophic cascade in coastal tundra areas of northern Fennoscandia during a major rodent outbreak, probably due to a relatively low diversity of marine‐subsidized predators in the region. Comparative observational and experimental studies at large spatial scales in various arctic regions are absolutely necessary for a better understanding of factors causing regional variations in the functioning of arctic food webs.