Tissue 4

The finding that there are considerable tissue stresses (TSs)in the hypocotyl of Helianthus annuus L. prompts the question:how are the stresses generated? Here, a one-dimensional modelis formulated which, based on (i) symplastic, turgor-inducedextensions of tissues which differ in moduli of elasticity,and (ii) static equilibrium, predicts the occurrence of longitudinalTSs in stem-like organs, and gives their dependence on turgorpressure. To calculate the longitudinal forces which generatethe TSs in a stem, the moduli of elasticity of the tissues needto be known. The moduli were determined for uniaxial and multiaxialstresses for the outer tissue (OT) and the inner tissue (IT)of the hypocotyl. In the OT, the moduli were strongly dependenton applied uniaxial stress. The magnitudes of the calculatedlongitudinal forces (tensile and compressive) in the hypocotyl,were comparable to those measured. It follows that the TSs mayarise without differential growth of the tissues. Key words: Epidermis, model, moduli of elasticity, turgor, sunflower hypocotyl, tissue stresses     

Buckling of inner cell wall layers after manipulations to reduce tensile stress: observations and interpretations for stress transmission

The inner layer of the cell wall in tissues that are under tensile stress in situ, e.g. epidermis and collenchyma of etiolated sunflower hypocotyls, shows a pattern of transverse folds when the tissues are detached and plasmolysed. This can be observed by Nomarski imaging of inner surfaces of the outer cell walls and electron microscopy of longitudinal sections after peeling the epidermis and bathing it in plasmolysing solutions. The folds are apparently caused by buckling of the inner layer due to the longitudinal compressive force exerted on this layer by the outer wall layer, when it shrinks after the removal of the longitudinal tensile stresses. In these stresses, two components can be distinguished: the tissue stress, disappearing on peeling, and that caused directly by turgor pressure, disappearing in hyperosmotic solution. Investigation of the buckling indicates that the outer layer of the cell wall transmits in situ most of the longitudinal tensile stress in the wall. The common concept that the inner layer of the wall is the region bearing most stress and therefore regulating growth can still be valid with respect to the transverse stress component.     

Kinetic Properties of Four Enzymes Involved in Proline Metabolism in Cold-acclimated Wheat

Two varieties of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) a winter (Kharkov)and a spring (Glenlea), were acclimated under controlled conditionsat 5 °C and 25 °C (12 h photoperiod). Kinetic properties(K_m1 V_max/Km ratio and Q₁₀ as a function of reduction of substrateconcentration) were investigated for enzymatic systems involvedin two pathways of proline metabolism: the glutamic acid andthe ornithine pathways. Four enzymes were studied, namely prolinedehydrogenase (PDH, EC 1.5.1.2 [EC] ), glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH,EC 1.4.1.2 [EC] -4), glutamine synthetase (GS, EC 6.3.1.2 [EC] ) and ornithinetransaminase (OT, EC 2.6.1.13 [EC] ). Kinetic properties of thesefour enzymes proved to be modulated by cold acclimation, especiallyin Kharkov, the winter cultivar, which accumulates proline.Firstly, the synthesis of precursors of proline may be augmentedand the degradation of proline lessened by either decreasingthe K_m values of OT or increasing the K_m values of PDH. Secondly,the catalytic efficiency (V_max ratio) of GDH, GS, and OT isincreased. Thirdly, the lower values of Q₁₀ indicate a highcapacity of reaction of GS and OT.     

Intracellular signaling specificity in response to uniaxial vs. multiaxial stretch: implications for mechanotransduction

Several lines of evidence suggest that muscle cells can distinguish between specific mechanical stimuli. To test this concept, we subjected C₂C₁₂ myotubes to cyclic uniaxial or multiaxial stretch. Both types of stretch induced an increase in extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and protein kinase B (PKB/Akt) phosphorylation, but only multiaxial stretch induced ribosomal S6 kinase (p70^S6k) phosphorylation. Further results demonstrated that the signaling events specific to multiaxial stretch (p70^S6k phosphorylation) were elicited by forces delivered through the elastic culture membrane and were not due to greater surface area deformations or localized regions of large tensile strain. Experiments performed using medium that was conditioned by multiaxial stretched myotubes indicated that a release of paracrine factors was not sufficient for the induction of signaling to p70^S6k. Furthermore, incubation with gadolinium(III) chloride (500 µM), genistein (250 µM), PD-98059 (250 µM), bisindolylmaleimide I (20 µM), or LY-294002 (100 µM ) did not block the multiaxial stretch-induced signaling to p70^S6k. However, disrupting the actin cytoskeleton with cytochalasin D did block the multiaxial signaling to p70^S6k, with no effect on signaling to PKB/Akt. These results demonstrate that specific types of mechanical stretch activate distinct signaling pathways, and we propose that this occurs through direct mechanosensory-mechanotransduction mechanisms and not through previously defined growth factor/receptor binding pathways. growth; hypertrophy; muscle; strain; tension     

Force treadmill for measuring vertical and horizontal ground reaction forces

Weconstructed a force treadmill to measure the vertical, horizontal andlateral components of the ground-reaction forces (F_z,F_y,F_x, respectively) and the ground-reaction force moments(M_z,M_y,M_x), respectively exerted bywalking and running humans. The chassis of a custom-built, lightweight(90 kg), mechanically stiff treadmill was supported along its length bya large commercial force platform. The natural frequencies of vibrationwere >178 Hz for F_z and >87Hz for F_y, i.e., well above thesignal content of these ground-reaction forces. Mechanical tests andcomparisons with data obtained from a force platform runway indicatedthat the force treadmill recordedF_z,F_y,M_x andM_y ground-reaction forces andmoments accurately. Although the lowest natural frequency of vibrationwas 88 Hz for F_x, thesignal-to-noise ratios for F_x andM_z were unacceptable. This devicegreatly decreases the time and laboratory space required for locomotionexperiments and clinical evaluations. The modular design allows forindependent use of both treadmill and force platform.

     

The Steady State Chlorophyll a Fluorescence Exhibits in Vivo an Optimum as a Function of Light Intensity which Reflects the Physiological State of the Plant

Modulated (690 and 730 nm), as well as direct chlorophyll (Chl)a fluorescence and changes in the concentration of the oxidizedP700 were measured under steady state conditions in leaves ofhigher plants adapted to different light intensities. All theleaf samples exhibit an optimum curve of steady state fluorescenceyield (F_s) versus the light intensity but its position withrespect to light intensity varies considerably from one speciesto another or from one sample to other even in the same plantor within the same leaf sample. However, the optimum level ofF_s was always at a moderate light intensity. By using the modulatedfluorescence technique, the system with all closed (F^l_m) oropen reaction center (F^l_o) were measured in steady state conditions.Each experimentally measured fluorescence yield was separatedinto a fluorescence emission of open (F_open = F^l_o,(1—V_s))and closed (F_closed = (F^l_m . V_s)) reaction center (RC) of photosystemII where V_s=(F_s – F^l_o)/(F^l_m – F^l_o) is the functionof fraction of closed reaction centers. With increasing lightintensity, the fraction of open RC decreased while the fractionof closed RC increased. Maximum quantum efficiency (P_o) andactual quantum efficiency (P) decreased by increasing lightintensity. An optimum level of F_s was observed, when the fractionof closed reaction centers V_s of each sample was about 0.2 showinga common quenching mechanism which determines the fluorescenceproperties under steady state condition. This explains the apparentphenomenological contradiction that the fluorescence yield understeady state conditions can increase or decrease upon an increaseof actinic light. (Received December 31, 1994; Accepted May 1, 1995)     

Water Potential and Mechanical Properties of the Cell Wall of Hypocotyls of Dark-Grown Squash (Cucurbita maxima Duch.) under Water-Stress Conditions

Hypocotyl growth of seedlings of dark-grown squash (Cucurbitamaxima Duch.) was greatly reduced by the addition of 60mM polyethyleneglycol (PEG) to hydroponic solution (water stress). Apoplastic solution (A) and cell sap (C) were separately collectedfrom the hypocotyl segments by a centrifugation method. Theosmotic potentials of A (_A) and C (_c), and (=_c–_A) ofstressed hypocotyls were always lower than those of unstressedhypocotyls. Suction force was measured by immersing the segments into solutionsof different concentrations of mannitol. Suction force was significantlycorrelated with _C (r= –0.99). The mechanical properties of the cell wall of hypocotyl segmentswere measured by stressrelaxation technique. Minimum stressrelaxation time (T_o), relaxation rate (R) and residual stressof unstressed hypocotyls were low during the growth period andincreased when the growth ceased. T_o and R of stressed hypocotylsdecreased one day after the stress treatment, but the residualstress was not decreased by the water stress throughout theexperiment. These results suggest that the suppressed growth of dark-grownsquash hypocotyls under water stress was due neither to thereduction of the osmotic potential difference between innerand outer space of the cell, nor to the decrease in suctionforce, but was partly due to the unchanged mechanical propertiesof the cell wall, as represented by one stress-relaxation parameter,residual stress. (Received February 5, 1988; Accepted September 8, 1988)     

Nutrient-limited growth rates: quantitative benefits of stress responses and some aspects of regulation

Young sunflower plants (Helianthus annuus L.) under stress oflow nitrate or phosphate availability exhibited increases inroot: shoot ratio and in kinetic parameters for uptake. Theyshowed no significant changes in photosynthetic utilizationof either nutrient. Increases in root: shoot ratio were achievedby early and persistent suppression of shoot growth, but notroot growth. Affinity for phosphate uptake, 1/K_m(P), increasedwith phosphate stress, as did affinity for nitrate uptake, 1/K_m(N),with nitrate stress. Maximal uptake rate, V_max, for phosphateuptake increased with phosphorus stress; V_max for nitrate didnot increase with nitrogen stress. Phosphate V_max was relatedstrongly to root nutrient status. Decreases in V_max with plantage were not well explained by changes in age structure of roots.Estimated benefits of acclimatory changes in root: shoot ratioand uptake kinetics ranged up to 2-fold increases in relativegrowth rate, RGR. The relation of RGR to uptake physiology followedpredictions of functional balance moderately well, with somesystematic deviations. Analyses of RGR using growth models implyno significant growth benefit from regulating Vmax, specifically,not from down-regulating it at high nutrient availability. Quantitativebenefits of increases in root: shoot ratio and uptake parametersare predicted to be quite small under common conditions whereinnutrient concentrations are significantly depleted by uptake.The root: shoot response is estimated to confer the smallestbenefit under non-depleting conditions and the largest benefitunder depleting conditions. Even then, the absolute benefitis predicted to be small, possibly excepting the case of heterogeneoussoils. Depleting and non-depleting conditions are addressedwith very different experimental techniques. We note that atheoretical framework is lacking that spans both these cases,other than purely numerical formulations that are not readilyinterpreted. Key words: Nutrient stress, nutrient uptake, nutrient use efficiency, relative growth rate, Helianthus annuus     

Effects of Osmotic Stress, Ionic Stress and IAA on the Cell-Membrane Resistance of Vigna Hypocotyls

The cell-membrane resistance (R_m) of Vigna hypocotyls was examined,and the effects of osmotic stress, ionic stress and IAA on R_mwere investigated. R_m decreased by 64 to 77% under osmotic stressin the presence of absorbable solutes (40 mM sorbitol, 15 mMKC1, 30 mM sucrose; or 40 mM sorbitol, 15 mM KC1, 30 mM sucroseplus 10^–4 M IAA) or under ionic stress (50 mM NaCl or50 mM KC1). R_m was not changed by perfusion with 10^–4M IAA. Therefore, the hyper-polarizations of the membrane potentialobserved in both cases should be ascribed totally to the activationof the electrogenic proton pump. Although R_m showed an increaseof 1.6 fold when the hypocotyls were subjected to osmotic stress(100 mM sorbitol or 100 mM sorbitol plus 10^–4 M IAA),83.6% or 92.4% of the hyperpolarization of the membrane potential(V_px was also the result of the activation of the pump. Theresults, calculated on the basis of the current source model,support the viewpoint that the hyperpolarization of the cellmembrane potential of Vigna hypocotyls under osmotic stress,ionic stress or in the presence of IAA is an expression of theactivation of the proton pump, and is not caused by an increasein R_m. ¹ Present address: Researchers and Planners of Natural Environment, Yotsugi Bldg. (2F), 1-5-4 Horinouchi, Suginami-Ku, Tokyo,166 Japan ² Present address: Graduate School of Integrated Science, YokohamaCity University, 22-2 Seto, Kanazawa-Ku, Yokohama, 236 Japan (Received February 14, 1991; Accepted July 24, 1991)     

Changes in Photosystem Stoichiometry in Response to Environmental Conditions for Cell Growth Observed with the Cyanophyte Synechocystis PCC 6714

Changes in photosystem stoichiometry in response to shift ofenvironments for cell growth other than light regime were studiedwith the cyanophyte Synechocystis PCC 6714 in relation to thechange induced by light-quality shift. Following two environment-shiftswere examined: the shift of molecular form of inorganic carbonsource for photosynthesis from CO₂ to HCO₃^– (CO₂ stress)and the increase in salinity of the medium with NaCl (0.5 M)(Na⁺ stress). Both CO₂ and Na⁺ stresses induced the increasein PSI abundance resulting in a higher PSI/PSII stoichiometry.CO₂ stress was found to elevate simultaneously Cyt c oxidaseactivity (V_max). The feature was the same as that caused bylight-quality shift from preferential excitation of PSI to PSII(light stress) though the enhancement by either stress was smallerthan that by light stress. Under our experimental conditions,PSI/PSII stoichiometry appeared to increase at a fairly constantrate to the basal level even when the basal level had been differentlydetermined by the light-quality. Enhancing rates for PSI/PSIIstoichiometry and for Cyt c oxidase activity were also similarto each other. Since the two stresses affect the thylakoid electrontransport similarly to the shift of light-quality, we interpretedour results as follows: three environmental stresses, CO₂, Na⁺,and light stresses, cause changes in electron turnover capacityof PSI and Cyt c oxidase under a similar, probably a common,mechanism for monitoring redox state of thylakoid electron transportsystem. ¹On leave from Department of Biology, College of Natural Science,Kyngpook National University, Taegu 702-701, Korea. ₂Present address: Department of Marine Bioscience, Fukui Pre-fecturalUniversity, Obama, Fukui, 917 Japan.     

The Effect of Drying Rate on the Survival of Three Desiccation-tolerant Angiosperm Species

The effect of drying rate on the survival of three angiospermresurrection plants, Craterostigma wilmsii (homoiochlorophyllous),Xerophyta humilis (poikilochlorophyllous) and Myrothamnus flabellifolius(homoiochlorophyllous) was examined. All species survived slowdrying, but only C. wilmsii was able to survive rapid drying.C. wilmsii was rapidly able to induce protection mechanismssuch as folding of cell walls to prevent mechanical stress andcurling of leaves to minimize light stress, and thus survivedfast drying. Rapid drying of X. humilis andM. flabellifoliusappeared to allow insufficient time for complete induction ofprotection mechanisms. In X. humilis, there was incomplete replacementof water in vacuoles, the photosynthetic apparatus was not dismantled,plasma membrane disruption occurred and quantum efficiency ofphotosystem II (F_V/F_M) did not recover on rehydration. Rapidlydried leaves of M. flabellifolius did not fold tightly againstthe stem and F_V/F_Mdid not recover. Ultrastructural studies showedthat subcellular damage incurred during drying was exacerbatedon rehydration. The three species co-occur in environments inwhich they experience high desiccation pressures. C. wilmsiihas few features to retard water loss and thus the ability forrapid induction of subcellular protection is vital to survival.X. humilis and M. flabellifolius are able to retard water lossand protection is acquired relatively slowly. Copyright 1999Annals of Botany Company Chlorophyll fluorescence, Craterostigma wilmsii, drying rate, Myrothamnus flabellifolius, resurrection plant, ultrastructure, Xerophyta humilis.     

Effects of Nitrogen Nutrition on Photosynthesis in Cd-treated Sunflower Plants

Increased nitrogen supply stimulates plant growth and photosynthesis.Since it was shown that heavy metals may cause deficienciesof essential nutrients in plants the potential reversal of cadmiumtoxicity by increased N nutrition was investigated. The effectson photosynthesis of low Cd (0, 0.5, 2 or 5 mmol m^-3) combinedwith three N treatments (2, 7.5 or 10 mol m^-3) were examinedin young sunflower plants. Chlorophyll fluorescence quenchingparameters were determined at ambient CO₂and at 100 or 800 µmolquanta m^-2 s^-1. The vitality index (R_fd) decreased approx. three-timesin response to 5 mmol m^-3Cd, at 2 and 10 mol m^-3N. The maximumphotochemical efficiency of PSII reaction centres (F_v/ F_m) wasnot influenced by Cd or N treatment. The highest Cd concentrationdecreased quantum efficiency of PSII electron transport (_II)by 30%, at 2 and 10 mol m^-3N, mostly due to increased closureof PSII reaction centres (q_P). Photosynthetic oxygen evolutionrates at saturating CO₂were decreased in plants treated with5 mmol m^-3Cd, at all N concentrations. The results indicatethat Cd treatment affected the ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP)regeneration capacity of the Calvin cycle more than other processes.At the same time, the amounts of soluble and ribulose-1,5-bisphosphatecarboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) protein increased with Cd treatment.Decreased photosynthesis, but substantially increased Rubiscocontent, in sunflower leaves under Cd stress indicate that asignificant amount of Rubisco protein is not active in photosynthesisand could have another function. It is shown that optimal nitrogennutrition decreases the inhibitory effects of Cd in young sunflowerplants. Copyright 2000 Annals of Botany Company Helianthus annuus L., cadmium, nitrogen, photosynthesis, Rubisco, sunflower     

甜菜夜蛾不同世代对氯氟氰菊酯抗性减退及多功能氧化酶系活性变化

在室内用人工饲料连续饲养和未用药剂筛选条件下,测定了采自田间对氯氟氰菊酯产生高水平抗性甜菜夜蛾Spodoptera exigua (Hübner)种群的抗药性及其多功能氧化酶系活性的变化情况。用点滴法测定不同世代3龄幼虫抗性结果为：室内F₁代LD₅₀值为 0.9672 μg/头,抗性倍数为4 836.0倍,以后各世代逐渐降低,至F₄₃代LD₅₀值为0.0325μg/头,抗性倍数为162.5倍,抗性水平下降了29.8倍。用浸叶法测定不同世代3龄幼虫抗性结果为：室内F₁代LC₅₀值为185.6 mg/L,抗性倍数为964.7倍,以后各世代也逐渐降低,至F₄₃代LC₅₀值为9.2 mg/L,抗性倍数为47.8倍,抗性水平下降了20.2倍。与敏感品系相比,该田间种群室内饲养至F₄₃代仍处于较高的抗性水平,抗性减退缓慢,很难恢复到敏感水平。测定甜菜夜蛾田间种群室内F₂、F₂₀和F₄₁代及敏感品系5龄幼虫中肠微粒体甲氧试卤灵-O-脱甲基酶、乙氧试卤灵-O-脱乙基酶、芳香基羟基化酶及艾氏剂环氧化酶活性,结果表明：与敏感品系相比,田间种群甲氧试卤灵-O-脱甲基酶和艾氏剂环氧化酶的活性仅F₂代显著较高,F₂₀和F₄₁代差异不显著,乙氧试卤灵-O-脱乙基酶和芳香基羟基化酶的活性F₂、F₂₀和F₄₁代均显著较高。结果提示甜菜夜蛾抗性水平可能与其体内微粒体多功能氧化酶系活性有密切关系。     

Velocity, force, power, and Ca2+ sensitivity of fast and slow monkey skeletal muscle fibers

In this study,we determined the contractile properties of single chemically skinnedfibers prepared from the medial gastrocnemius (MG) and soleus (Sol)muscles of adult male rhesus monkeys and assessed the effects of thespaceflight living facility known as the experiment support primatefacility (ESOP). Muscle biopsies were obtained 4 wk before andimmediately after an 18-day ESOP sit, and fiber type was determined byimmunohistochemical techniques. The MG slow type I fiber wassignificantly smaller than the MG type II, Sol type I, and Sol type IIfibers. The ESOP sit caused a significant reduction in the diameter oftype I and type I/II (hybrid) fibers of Sol and MG type II and hybridfibers but no shift in fiber type distribution. Single-fiber peak force(mN and kN/m²) was similarbetween fiber types and was not significantly different from valuespreviously reported for other species. The ESOP sit significantlyreduced the force (mN) of Sol type I and MG type II fibers. Thisdecline was entirely explained by the atrophy of these fiber typesbecause the force per cross-sectional area (kN/m²) was not altered. Peakpower of Sol and MG fast type II fiber was 5 and 8.5 times that of slowtype I fiber, respectively. The ESOP sit reduced peak power by 25 and18% in Sol type I and MG type II fibers, respectively, and, for theformer fiber type, shifted the force-pCa relationship to the right,increasing the Ca²⁺ activationthreshold and the free Ca²⁺concentration, eliciting half-maximal activation. The ESOP sit had noeffect on the maximal shortening velocity(V_o) of anyfiber type. V_o ofthe hybrid fibers was only slightly higher than that of slow type Ifibers. This result supports the hypothesis that in hybrid fibers theslow myosin heavy chain would be expected to have a disproportionatelygreater influence onV_o.

     

Tensile Tissue Stress Affects the Orientation of Cortical Microtubules in the Epidermis of Sunflower Hypocotyl

Abstract In turgid multicellular organs, it is convenient to differentiate between the two kinds of tensile forces acting in cell walls as a result of turgor pressure. The primary forces occur both in situ and in cells isolated from the organ, whereas the secondary forces occur only in situ. The latter are an unavoidable physical consequence of the variation in mechanical parameters of tissues forming layers or strands. The most rigid tissue is under maximal tensile force, whereas the least rigid is under maximal compressive force. These forces cause tissue stresses (that is, certain tissues are under tensile stress, whereas others are under compressive stress in the organ). The primary and secondary forces result in primary and secondary stress in cell walls, respectively. The anisotropy of the primary stress is a function of cell shape. For instance, in cylindric cells the anisotropy expressed as the ratio of longitudinal to transverse stresses is 0.5. The anisotropy of the secondary stress is a function of the compound structure of the organ. For example, in the epidermis of sunflower hypocotyl, the longitudinal secondary stress is much higher than the transverse stress. The primary and secondary stresses are superimposed, and, as a consequence, the stress anisotropy in the outer thick walls of epidermal cells is greater than 1. These outer epidermal walls transmit most of the tissue stress. When the epidermis is peeled but remains turgid, only primary stress remains, but loading of the peel can reestablish the original stress anisotropy. We studied the effect of stress anisotropy changes on the orientation of cortical microtubules (CMTs) in the sunflower hypocotyl epidermis. We showed that changes in stress anisotropy cause the CMT orientation to change in the direction of maximal wall stress. In situ, the relatively high tensile tissue stress in the epidermis causes maximal stress in the longitudinal direction and relatively steep CMT orientation. When the tissue stress is removed from the epidermis by peeling, the CMTs tend to reorient toward the transverse direction, which is the direction of maximal stress in the primary component. On application of external longitudinal stress, to substitute for tissue stress, CMTs tend to reorient in the longitudinal direction. However, a relatively high rate of plastic strain is caused by the stress applied to the peel in an acid medium. This produces a less steep orientation of CMTs. It appears that the change in stress anisotropy orients the CMT in the direction in which the stress is maximal after the change, but there is also some effect of the growth rate on the orientation. Received 4 January 2000; accepted 10 February, 2000     

氧化乐果对不结球白菜光系统Ⅱ的毒理效应

采用不同品牌、不同浓度的氧化乐果杀虫剂对不结球白菜进行叶面喷洒处理,利用植物效率仪（PEA）测试不结球白菜叶片的快速叶绿素荧光动力学曲线,并根据JIP-test参数分析光系统Ⅱ（PSⅡ）的变化,研究氧化乐果对不结球白菜PSⅡ的毒理效应及残效动态.结果表明：除0.50%浓度氧化乐果外,其他浓度处理对不结球白菜叶片PSⅡ的最大光化学效率F_v/F_m影响不显著.但随着处理浓度的增大,初始荧光F_o、最大荧光产量F_m、J相的相对可变荧光V_J和PSⅡ单位反应中心用于电子传递的能量ET_o/RC呈显著增加趋势;而被PSⅡ反应中心捕获的激发能将电子从还原态质体醌Q_A^- 送入电子传递链的效率ψ_o却呈显著降低趋势.两个品牌的氧化乐果杀虫剂对不结球白菜PSⅡ的影响具有较好的一致性.氧化乐果叶面喷洒处理对不结球白菜PSⅡ的影响残效均在第3天达到最大,在第9天至第12天逐渐消失.表明氧化乐果杀虫剂对不结球白菜PSⅡ的作用目标靶促进了Q_A向Q_A^-的还原过程（V_J升高）以及Q_A^-向Q_B 的电子传递过程（ET_o/RC增加）.     

Application of the Tsai-Wu quadratic multiaxial failure criterion to bovine trabecular bone

As a first step toward development of a multiaxial failure criterion for human trabecular bone, the Tsai-Wu quadratic failure criterion was modified as a function of apparent density and applied to bovine tibial trabecular bone. Previous data from uniaxial compressive, tensile, and torsion tests (n = 139 total) were combined with those from new triaxial tests (n = 17) to calibrate and then verify the criterion. Combinations of axial compression and radial pressure were used to produce the triaxial compressive stress states. All tests were performed with minimal end artifacts in the principal material coordinate system of the trabecular network. Results indicated that the stress interaction term F12 exhibited a strong nonlinear dependence on apparent density (r2 > 0.99), ranging from -0.126 MPa-2 at low densities (0.29 g/cm3) to 0.005 MPa-2 at high densities (0.63 g/cm3). After calibration and when used to predict behavior of new-specimens without any curve-fitting, the Tsai-Wu criterion had a mean (+/- SD) error of -32.6 +/- 10.6 percent. Except for the highest density triaxial specimens, most (15/17 specimens) failed at axial stresses close to their predicted uniaxial values, and some reinforcement for transverse loading was observed. We conclude that the Tsai-Wu quadratic criterion, as formulated here, is at best only a reasonable predictor of the multiaxial failure behavior of trabecular bone, and further work is required before it can be confidently applied to human bone.     

Cell wall water content has a direct effect on extensibility in growing hypocotyls of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.)

It has been proposed that spacing between cellulose microfibrils within plant cell walls may be an important determinant of their mechanical properties. A consequence of this hypothesis is that the water content of cell walls may alter their extensibility and that low water potentials may directly reduce growth rates by reducing cell wall spacing. This paper describes a number of experiments in which the water potential of frozen and thawed growing hypocotyls of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) were altered using solutions of high molecular weight polyethylene glycol (PEG) or Dextran while their extension under constant stress was monitored using a creep extensiometer (frozen and thawed tissue was used to avoid confounding effects of turgor or active responses to the treatments). Clear reductions in extensibility were observed using both PEG and Dextran, with effects observed in hypocotyl segments treated with PEG 35 000 solutions with osmotic pressures of > or =0.21 MPa suggesting that the relatively mild stresses required to reduce water potentials of plants in vivo by 0.21 MPa may be sufficient to reduce growth rates via a direct effect on wall extensibility. It is noted, therefore, that the water binding capacity of plant cell walls may be of ecophysiological importance. Measurements of cell walls of sunflower hypocotyls using scanning electron microscopy confirmed that treatment of hypocotyls with PEG solutions reduced wall thickness, supporting the hypothesis that the spatial constraint of movement of cellulose microfibrils affects the mechanical properties of the cell wall.     

Subunit Proteins of Photosystem I

Photosystem I (PS I) is a supramolecular complex in thylakoidmembranes and mediates the light-driven electron flow from plastocyanin(or cytochrome c₅₅₃) to ferredoxin. It has been establishedthat the PS I complex consists of more than 10 different subunitproteins that ligate 100 to 200 molecules of chlorophylls includingP700, two molecules of phylloquinone and three iron-sulfur centers(F_X, F_A, F_B). The identity and properties of these PS I subunitproteins have been extensively studied, and their genes haverecently been cloned and mutagenized. The current status ofthese investigations is summarized. (Received May 8, 1992; )     

Effects of microtubules and microfilaments on [Ca(2+)](i) and contractility in a reconstituted fibroblast fiber

We used a reconstituted fiber formed when 3T3fibroblasts are grown in collagen to characterize nonmusclecontractility and Ca²⁺ signaling. Calf serum (CS) andthrombin elicited reversible contractures repeatable for >8 h. CSelicited dose-dependent increases in isometric force; 30% produced thelargest forces of 106 ± 12 µN (n = 30), whichis estimated to be 0.5 mN/mm² cell cross-sectionalarea. Half times for contraction and relaxation were 4.7 ± 0.3 and 3.1 ± 0.3 min at 37°C. With imposition of constant shortening velocities, force declined with time, yieldingtime-dependent force-velocity relations. Forces at 5 s fit thehyperbolic Hill equation; maximum velocity(V_max) was 0.035 ± 0.002 L_o/s.Compliance averaged 0.0076 ± 0.0006 L_o/F_o. Disruption of microtubules with nocodazole in a CS-contracted fiber had no net effects on force, V_max, or stiffness; force increased in 8, butdecreased in 13, fibers. Nocodazole did not affect baselineintracellular Ca²⁺ concentration([Ca²⁺]_i) but reduced (~30%) the[Ca²⁺]_i response to CS. The force afternocodazole treatment was the primary determinant of stiffness andV_max, suggesting that microtubules were not amajor component of fiber internal mechanical resistance. Cytochalasin Dhad major inhibitory effects on all contractile parameters measured butlittle effect on [Ca²⁺]_i.