Target of rapamycin-dependent activation of S6 kinase is a central step in the transduction of nutritional signals during egg development in a mosquito

Female mosquitoes are effective disease vectors, because they take blood from vertebrate hosts to obtain nutrients for egg development. Amino acid signaling via the target of rapamycin (TOR) pathway has been identified as a key requirement for the activation of egg development after a blood meal. We report the characterization of the TOR kinase and one of its major downstream targets, S6 kinase, of the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti during egg development in adult females. Both TOR and S6K mRNA are expressed at high levels in the ovaries and in lower levels in fat body and other tissues. After a blood meal, the subcellular localization of TOR shifts from the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane of fat body cells. By detecting phosphothreonine 388 of mosquito S6 kinase, we show that TOR activity strongly increases in fat body and ovaries after a blood meal in vivo. Furthermore, phosphorylation of S6 kinase increases in in vitro cultured fat bodies after stimulation with amino acids. This increase is sensitive to the TOR inhibitor rapamycin in a concentration-dependent manner but not to the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-related kinase inhibitor LY294002, the MAPK inhibitor PD98059, or the translational inhibitor cycloheximide. RNA interference-mediated reduction of S6 kinase strongly inhibits the amino acid-induced up-regulation of the major yolk protein vitellogenin in vitro and effectively disrupts egg development after a blood meal in vivo. Our data show that TOR-dependent activation of S6 kinase is a central step in the transduction of nutritional information during egg development in mosquitoes.     

cDNA isolation, expression, and hormonal regulation of yolk protein genes in the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Yolk protein (YP) or vitellogenin (Vg), the main component of yolk, is the key nutrient for embryonic development. YPs, encoded from uncleaved genes existing mainly in cyclorraphan flies, are different from VGs that are present in most non-cyclorraphan dipterans and other insects. In this study, cDNAs of two YPs, namely Bdyp1 and Bdyp2 (GenBank accession Nos. AF368053 and AF368054), were isolated in the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel). RT-PCR analysis revealed that Bdyp1 and 2 are expressed in the fat body and ovary during egg development. However, the expression profiles of Bdyp1 and 2 in the fat body are different, indicating that divergent mechanisms might exist in the regulation of these two genes. Twenty-hydroxyecdysone (20E) plays a major role in promoting Bdyp1 expression, yet the expression of Bdyp2 exhibits a greater response to juvenile hormone (JH) in fat body in vitro. Unexpectedly, 20E-induced expression of both Bdyp1 and 2 is suppressed by JH prior to 20E treatment of in vitro fat body; conversely, it is enhanced by the addition of JH following 20E treatment.     

桔小实蝇肽聚糖识别蛋白基因BdPGRP-SB1的克隆及功能鉴定

【目的】为探究肽聚糖识别蛋白(PGRP)基因BdPGRP-SB1在桔小实蝇Bactrocera dorsalis免疫中的作用。【方法】本研究利用PCR克隆桔小实蝇BdPGRP-SB1全长cDNA序列;利用生物信息学软件对该基因核苷酸序列及其编码的氨基酸序列特征进行分析。采用RT-qPCR分析BdPGRP-SB1在桔小实蝇不同发育阶段(卵、幼虫、蛹、成虫)及5日龄成虫不同组织(中肠、马氏管、后肠、脂肪体、卵巢和精巢)中的表达模式;对桔小实蝇5日龄雌成虫分别注射大肠杆菌Escherichia coli 0111:B4肽聚糖(PGN-EB)和金黄色葡萄球菌Staphylococcus aureus肽聚糖(PGN-SA)后检测BdPGRP-SB1表达水平变化。利用RNAi沉默BdPGRP-SB1的表达,测定大肠杆菌和金黄色葡萄球菌诱导后桔小实蝇雌成虫的死亡率及大肠杆菌诱导后抗菌肽(AMP)基因attacin-A, defensin和diptercin表达变化情况。【结果】克隆获得桔小实蝇BdPGRP-SB1的全长cDNA序列(GenBank登录号: MN892482),开放阅读框长558 bp,编码185个氨基酸,其编码蛋白预测分子量为21.45 kD,等电点为8.57。序列分析表明,BdPGRP-SB1无跨膜结构域,具有PGRP保守结构域,前端具有信号肽,为分泌型蛋白;具有Zn²⁺依赖性酰胺酶活性和DAP型肽聚糖识别位点。系统进化分析发现,BdPGRP-SB1与辣椒实蝇B. latifrons的PGRP-SB1亲缘关系最近,氨基酸序列一致性达96%。发育表达模式表明,BdPGRP-SB1在桔小实蝇3日龄幼虫和成虫期高表达;组织表达谱结果显示BdPGRP-SB1在5日龄成虫各组织中均有表达,在脂肪体内表达量最高。PGN-EB和PGN-SA均能诱导桔小实蝇雌成虫体内BdPGRP-SB1表达水平变化。通过RNAi抑制BdPGRP-SB1表达后,注射大肠杆菌导致桔小实蝇雌成虫死亡率显著升高,以及attacin-A, defensin和diptercin表达量显著上调。【结论】结果说明桔小实蝇BdPGRP-SB1参与识别革兰氏阴性细菌,并可能参与桔小实蝇Imd途径调控其免疫反应。     

Cyclin-dependent Kinase 5 (Cdk5)-dependent Phosphorylation of p70 Ribosomal S6 Kinase 1 (S6K) Is Required for Dendritic Spine Morphogenesis

The maturation and maintenance of dendritic spines depends on neuronal activity and protein synthesis. One potential mechanism involves mammalian target of rapamycin, which promotes protein synthesis through phosphorylation of eIF4E-binding protein and p70 ribosomal S6 kinase 1 (S6K). Upon extracellular stimulation, mammalian target of rapamycin phosphorylates S6K at Thr-389. S6K also undergoes phosphorylation at other sites, including four serine residues in the autoinhibitory domain. Despite extensive biochemical studies, the importance of phosphorylation in the autoinhibitory domain in S6K function remains unresolved, and its role has not been explored in the cellular context. Here we demonstrated that S6K in neuron was phosphorylated at Ser-411 within the autoinhibitory domain by cyclin-dependent kinase 5. Ser-411 phosphorylation was regulated by neuronal activity and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Knockdown of S6K in hippocampal neurons by RNAi led to loss of dendritic spines, an effect that mimics neuronal activity blockade by tetrodotoxin. Notably, coexpression of wild type S6K, but not the phospho-deficient S411A mutant, could rescue the spine defects. These findings reveal the importance of cyclin-dependent kinase 5-mediated phosphorylation of S6K at Ser-411 in spine morphogenesis driven by BDNF and neuronal activity.     

ATG1, an autophagy regulator, inhibits cell growth by negatively regulating S6 kinase

It has been proposed that cell growth and autophagy are coordinated in response to cellular nutrient status, but the relationship between them is not fully understood. Here, we have characterized the fly mutants of Autophagy-specific gene 1 (ATG1), an autophagy-regulating kinase, and found that ATG1 is a negative regulator of the target of rapamycin (TOR)/S6 kinase (S6K) pathway. Our Drosophila studies have shown that ATG1 inhibits TOR/S6K-dependent cell growth and development by interfering with S6K activation. Consistently, overexpression of ATG1 in mammalian cells also markedly inhibits S6K in a kinase activity-dependent manner, and short interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of ATG1 induces ectopic activation of S6K and S6 phosphorylation. Moreover, we demonstrated that ATG1 specifically inhibits S6K activity by blocking phosphorylation of S6K at Thr 389. Taken together, our genetic and biochemical results strongly indicate crosstalk between autophagy and cell growth regulation.     

Developmental regulation of the activation of signaling components leading to translation initiation in skeletal muscle of neonatal pigs

The rapid growth of neonates is driven by high rates of skeletal muscle protein synthesis. This high rate of protein synthesis, which is induced by feeding, declines with development. Overnight-fasted 7- and 26-day-old pigs either remained fasted or were refed, and the abundance and phosphorylation of growth factor- and nutrient-induced signaling components that regulate mRNA translation initiation were measured in skeletal muscle and liver. In muscle, but not liver, the activation of inhibitors of protein synthesis, phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10, protein phosphatase 2A, and tuberous sclerosis complex 1/2 increased with age. Serine/threonine phosphorylation of the insulin receptor and insulin receptor substrate-1, which downregulates insulin signaling, and the activation of AMP-activated protein kinase, an inhibitor of protein synthesis, were unaffected by age and feeding in muscle and liver. Activation of positive regulators of protein synthesis, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), ribosomal protein S6 kinase 1 (S6K1), and eIF4E-binding protein-1 (4E-BP1) decreased with age in muscle but not liver. Feeding enhanced mTOR, S6K1, and 4E-BP1 activation in muscle, and this response decreased with age. In liver, activation of S6K1 and 4E-BP1, but not mTOR, was increased by feeding but was unaffected by age. Raptor abundance and the association between raptor and mTOR were greater in 7- than in 26-day-old pigs. The results suggest that the developmental decline in skeletal muscle protein synthesis is due in part to developmental regulation of the activation of growth factor and nutrient-signaling components.     

Activation of multiple signaling modules is critical in angiotensin IV-induced lung endothelial cell proliferation

Signaling events involving angiotensin IV (ANG IV)-mediated pulmonary artery endothelial cell (PAEC) proliferation were examined. ANG IV significantly increased upstream phosphatidylinositide (PI) 3-kinase (PI3K), PI-dependent kinase-1 (PDK-1), extracellular signal-related kinases (ERK1/2), and protein kinase B-alpha/Akt (PKB-alpha) activities, as well as downstream p70 ribosomal S6 kinase (p70S6K) activities and/or phosphorylation of these proteins. ANG IV also significantly increased 5-bromo-2'-deoxy-uridine incorporation into newly synthesized DNA in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. Pretreatment of cells with wortmannin and LY-294002, inhibitors of PI3K, or rapamycin, an inhibitor of the mammalian target of rapamycin kinase and p70S6K, diminished the ANG IV-mediated activation of PDK-1 and PKB-alpha as well as phosphorylation of p70S6K. Although an inhibitor of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase, PD-98059, but not rapamycin, blocked ANG IV-induced phosphorylation of ERK1/2, both PD-98059 and rapamycin independently caused partial reduction in ANG IV-mediated cell proliferation. However, simultaneous treatment with PD-98059 and rapamycin resulted in total inhibition of ANG IV-induced cell proliferation. These results demonstrate that ANG IV-induced DNA synthesis is regulated in a coordinated fashion involving multiple signaling modules in PAEC.     

Feeding stimulates protein synthesis in muscle and liver of neonatal pigs through an mTOR-dependent process

Protein synthesis is repressed in both skeletal muscle and liver after a short-term fast and is rapidly stimulated in response to feeding. Previous studies in rats and pigs have shown that the feeding-induced stimulation of protein synthesis is associated with activation of the 70-kDa ribosomal protein S6 kinase (S6K1) as well as enhanced binding of eukaryotic initiation factor eIF4E to eIF4G to form the active eIF4F complex. In cells in culture, hormones and nutrients regulate both of these events through a protein kinase termed the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). In the present study, the involvement of mTOR in the feeding-induced stimulation of protein synthesis in skeletal muscle and liver was examined. Pigs at 7 days of age were fasted for 18 h, and then one-half of the animals were fed. In addition, one-half of the animals in each group were administered rapamycin (0.75 mg/kg) 2 h before feeding. The results reveal that treating 18-h fasted pigs with rapamycin, a specific inhibitor of mTOR, before feeding prevented the activation of S6K1 and the changes in eIF4F complex formation observed in skeletal muscle and liver after feeding. Rapamycin also ablated the feeding-induced stimulation of protein synthesis in liver. In contrast, in skeletal muscle, rapamycin attenuated, but did not prevent, the stimulation of protein synthesis in response to feeding. The results suggest that feeding stimulates hepatic protein synthesis through an mTOR-dependent process involving enhanced eIF4F complex formation and activation of S6K1. However, in skeletal muscle, these two processes may account for only part of the stimulation of protein synthesis, and thus additional steps may be involved in the response.     

S6K1 phosphorylates and regulates fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) with the neuronal protein synthesis-dependent mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling cascade

Fragile X syndrome is a common form of cognitive deficit caused by the functional absence of fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP), a dendritic RNA-binding protein that represses translation of specific messages. Although FMRP is phosphorylated in a group I metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) activity-dependent manner following brief protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A)-mediated dephosphorylation, the kinase regulating FMRP function in neuronal protein synthesis is unclear. Here we identify ribosomal protein S6 kinase (S6K1) as a major FMRP kinase in the mouse hippocampus, finding that activity-dependent phosphorylation of FMRP by S6K1 requires signaling inputs from mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), ERK1/2, and PP2A. Further, the loss of hippocampal S6K1 and the subsequent absence of phospho-FMRP mimic FMRP loss in the increased expression of SAPAP3, a synapse-associated FMRP target mRNA. Together these data reveal a S6K1-PP2A signaling module regulating FMRP function and place FMRP phosphorylation in the mGluR-triggered signaling cascade required for protein-synthesis-dependent synaptic plasticity.     

S6 kinase inactivation impairs growth and translational target phosphorylation in muscle cells maintaining proper regulation of protein turnover

A defect in protein turnover underlies multiple forms of cell atrophy. Since S6 kinase (S6K)-deficient cells are small and display a blunted response to nutrient and growth factor availability, we have hypothesized that mutant cell atrophy may be triggered by a change in global protein synthesis. By using mouse genetics and pharmacological inhibitors targeting the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)/S6K pathway, here we evaluate the control of translational target phosphorylation and protein turnover by the mTOR/S6K pathway in skeletal muscle and liver tissues. The phosphorylation of ribosomal protein S6 (rpS6), eukaryotic initiation factor-4B (eIF4B), and eukaryotic elongation factor-2 (eEF2) is predominantly regulated by mTOR in muscle cells. Conversely, in liver, the MAPK and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathways also play an important role, suggesting a tissue-specific control. S6K deletion in muscle mimics the effect of the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin on rpS6 and eIF4B phosphorylation without affecting eEF2 phosphorylation. To gain insight on the functional consequences of these modifications, methionine incorporation and polysomal distribution were assessed in muscle cells. Rates and rapamycin sensitivity of global translation initiation are not altered in S6K-deficient muscle cells. In addition, two major pathways of protein degradation, autophagy and expression of the muscle-specific atrophy-related E3 ubiquitin ligases, are not affected by S6K deletion. Our results do not support a role for global translational control in the growth defect due to S6K deletion, suggesting specific modes of growth control and translational target regulation downstream of mTOR. signal transduction; atrophy; autophagy     

Wheat germ oil and its effects on a liquid larval rearing diet for oriental fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Wheat germ oil was added to a larval liquid diet for rearing Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae) to optimize fruit fly quality. Effects of various concentrations of wheat germ oil at 0.04, 0.07, 0.15, 0.30, and 0.66% and their possible mode of action were evaluated. Results suggest that addition of wheat germ oil does not affect pupal weight, larval developmental period, adult emergence, mating ability, or peak time for egg production. But there was a significant increase in pupal recovery, percentage of adult fliers, egg production, or egg hatch for larvae fed the diet with wheat germ oil compared with those reared on the liquid diet without wheat germ oil. The increase in egg hatch and fliers was dose dependent. Therefore, addition of wheat germ oil to fruit fly rearing diet is a novel way to improve fruit fly quality, especially in egg hatch, fliers, egg production, and pupal recovery.     

桔小实蝇幼体及成虫残体DNA条形码识别技术的建立与应用

实蝇类害虫多为国内外检疫对象, 其鉴定识别方法主要依据成虫的外部形态特征, 而传统的形态学识别法对口岸经常截获的幼体及残缺的虫体, 则无能为力。本研究以桔小实蝇Bactrocera dorsalis的幼体（卵、 幼虫、 蛹）以及成虫残体（足、 翅、 头部、 胸部、 腹部）为对象, 利用 DNA 条形码技术, 构建实蝇类害虫快速鉴定技术体系, 并以其他4种常见实蝇（包括番石榴实蝇B. correcta、 瓜实蝇B. cucurbitae、 南亚果实蝇B. tau、 柑桔大实蝇B. minax）为对象对该技术体系进行应用验证。结果显示, 桔小实蝇幼体以及成虫残体的碱基序列与数据库中靶标种COⅠ基因碱基序列的一致性为99.51%~99.84%, 其他4种实蝇相应序列与数据库中靶标种COⅠ基因序列的一致性分别为100%, 100%, 99.81%~99.83%和100%; 以邻接法（NJ法）构建系统发育树, 靶标种实蝇均与数据库中对应种实蝇聚为一支, 且置信度均为100%。以K2-P模型计算种内及种间遗传距离得出, 5种实蝇的种间遗传距离为0.0597~0.2363, 平均为0.1693; 种内遗传距离为0.0000~0.0041, 平均为0.0019。这些结果表明, 基于DNA条形码的物种识别技术完全可用于口岸截获的实蝇类害虫幼体及残体的准确鉴定。     

Juvenile hormone connects larval nutrition with target of rapamycin signaling in the mosquito Aedes aegypti

Anautogenous mosquitoes require blood meals to promote egg development. If adequate nutrients are not obtained during larval development, the resulting "small" sized adult mosquitoes require multiple blood meals for egg development; markedly increasing host-vector contacts and the likelihood of disease transmission. Nutrient-sensitive target of rapamycin (TOR) signaling is a key signaling pathway that links elevated hemolymph amino acid levels derived from the blood meal to the expression of yolk protein precursors in the fat body. Here we report that the blood-meal-induced activation of the TOR-signaling pathway and subsequent egg maturation depends on the accumulation of adequate nutritional reserves during larval development. We have established well-nourished, "standard" mosquitoes and malnourished, "small" mosquitoes as models to address this nutrient sensitive pathway. This regulatory mechanism involves juvenile hormone (JH), which acts as a mediator of fat body competence, permitting the response to amino acids derived from the blood meal. We demonstrate that treatment with JH results in recovery of the TOR molecular machinery, Aedes aegypti cationic amino acid transporter 2 (AaiCAT2), TOR, and S6 kinase (S6K), in fat bodies of small mosquitoes, enabling them to complete their first gonotrophic cycle after a single blood meal. These findings establish a direct link between nutrient reserves and the establishment of TOR signaling in mosquitoes.     

M-CSF, TNFalpha and RANK ligand promote osteoclast survival by signaling through mTOR/S6 kinase

Multinucleated bone-resorbing osteoclasts (Ocl) are cells of hematopoietic origin that play a major role in osteoporosis pathophysiology. Ocl survival and activity require M-CSF and RANK ligand (RANKL). M-CSF signals to Akt, while RANKL, like TNFalpha, activates NF-kappaB. We show here that although these are separate pathways in the Ocl, signaling of all three cytokines converges on mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) as part of their antiapoptotic action. Accordingly, rapamycin blocks M-CSF- and RANKL-dependent Ocl survival inducing apoptosis, and suppresses in vitro bone resorption proportional to the reduction in Ocl number. The cytokine signaling intermediates for mTOR/ribosomal protein S6 kinase (S6K) activation include phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase, Akt, Erks and geranylgeranylated proteins. Inhibitors of these intermediates suppress cytokine activation of S6K and induce Ocl apoptosis. mTOR regulates protein translation acting via S6K, 4E-BP1 and S6. We find that inhibition of translation by other mechanisms also induces Ocl apoptosis, demonstrating that Ocl survival is highly sensitive to continuous de novo protein synthesis. This study thus identifies mTOR/S6K as an essential signaling pathway engaged in the stimulation of cell survival in osteoclasts.