游客密度对动物园中黇鹿行为的影响

2006年9月20日-10月10日,以江苏省扬州市茱萸湾公园半散放鲇鹿为研究对象,采用目标动物取样法和全事件记录法,研究了不同游客密度条件下黇鹿日行为时间分配.并探讨了游客密度对鲇鹿日活动的影响.结果表明:在游客高峰期与低峰期,雄性取食、观望行为,雌性观望以及幼鹿取食、观望和修饰行为之间均存在显著差异(P＜0.05).在游客低峰期,雄性与雌性取食、反刍、卧息行为,雄性与幼鹿观望、其它行为,雌性与幼鹿取食、卧息、观望均存在极显著差异(P＜0.01);在游客高峰期,雄性与雌性取食、卧息,雌性与幼鹿取食、卧息、观望及移动行为均差异极显著(P＜0.01),雄性和幼鹿观望行为差异显著(P＜0.05).不同游客密度条件下游客活动对鲇鹿的取食、观望具有显著影响,当游客密度达到6人·min-1以上时,雄性观望行为显著增加,当达到16人·min-1以上时,雄性取食行为差异极显著(P＜0.01),此时雌性和幼鹿观望行为差异亦达到极显著水平(P＜0·01).因此,在旅游管理中,应将游客密度限制在16人·min-1以下,以减少对鲇鹿日活动影响.     

Dither: A unifying model of the effects of visitor numbers on zoo animal behavior

Interest in the impact of human presence on the behavior and well-being of zoo and aquarium animals is increasing. Previous work has conceptualized the presence of zoo visitors as having one of three impacts on the behavior of animals in zoos: positive, negative, or neutral. Research suggests the same species may exhibit all three responses under different conditions, calling into question whether the positive/negative/neutral framework is the most useful way of considering visitor impact on animal behavior. Here we present a model of visitor effects that unifies these three predictions. Our model suggests that zoo-goers may provide a “dither effect” for some animals living in zoos. We posit animals may show nonlinear behavioral responses over a range of visitor densities, effectively exhibiting changes in both comfortable and anxiety-like behaviors under different levels of human presence. We tested this model during two COVID-19 related closures at the San Francisco Zoo, studying seven species for evidence of nonlinear relationships between visitor numbers and animal behavior. Our results support the dither effect acting in several species observed.     

Visitor interest in zoo animals and the implications for collection planning and zoo education programmes

As zoos have sought to further their conservation missions, they have become powerful providers of environmental education. Outside of “formal” education initiatives, such as those designed for school and other organized groups, or structured public talks programmes, much of the learning potential that the zoo has to offer is around the viewing of animals and the response of visitors to them. In this, zoo learning is a very personal construct, develops from the previous knowledge, and experiences and motivations of each individual. In this article, we make the assertion that learning potential, although difficult to quantify, is very much related to the attractiveness of animal species and the interest that visitors show in them. Using standard behaviorist measures of attraction and interest (the proportion of visitors that stop and for how long), we analyzed the relative interest in 40 zoo species held in a modern UK zoo and the variables that are significant in predicting that popularity. Further to this, the suggestion is made that the zoo collection planning process could use such information to make more informed decisions about which species should be housed for their educational value. Taxonomic grouping was found to be the most significant predictor of visitor interest—that is, visitors were far more interested in mammals than any other group—although body size (length), increasing animal activity and whether the species was the primary or “flagship” species in an exhibit or not, were all found to have a significant bearing on visitor interest. Zoo Biol 29:715–731, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Feeding live prey to zoo animals: response of zoo visitors in Switzerland

In summer 2007, with the help of a written questionnaire, the attitudes of more than 400 visitors to the zoological garden of Zurich, Switzerland, toward the idea of feeding live insects to lizards, live fish to otters, and live rabbits to tigers were investigated. The majority of Swiss zoo visitors agreed with the idea of feeding live prey (invertebrates and vertebrates) to zoo animals, both off‐ and on‐exhibit, except in the case of feeding live rabbits to tigers on‐exhibit. Women and frequent visitors of the zoo disagreed more often with the on‐exhibit feeding of live rabbits to tigers. Study participants with a higher level of education were more likely to agree with the idea of feeding live invertebrates and vertebrates to zoo animals off‐exhibit. In comparison to an earlier study undertaken in Scotland, zoo visitors in Switzerland were more often in favor of the live feeding of vertebrates. Feeding live prey can counter the loss of hunting skills of carnivores and improve the animals' well‐being. However, feeding enrichments have to strike a balance between optimal living conditions of animals and the quality of visitor experience. Our results show that such a balance can be found, especially when live feeding of mammals is carried out off‐exhibit. A good interpretation of food enrichment might help zoos to win more support for the issue, and for re‐introduction programs and conservation. Zoo Biol 29:344–350, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

An investigation into the determining factors of zoo visitor attendances in UK zoos

The debate as to which animals are most beneficial to keep in zoos in terms of financial and conservative value is readily disputed; however, demographic factors have also been shown to relate to visitor numbers on an international level. The main aims of this research were: (1) To observe the distribution and location of zoos across the UK, (2) to develop a way of calculating zoo popularity in terms of the species kept within a collection and (3) to investigate the factors related to visitor numbers regarding admission costs, popularity of the collection in terms of the species kept and local demographic factors. Zoo visitor numbers were positively correlated with generated popularity ratings for zoos based on the species kept within a collection and admission prices (Pearson correlation: n = 34, r = 0.268, P = 0.126 and n = 34, r = −0.430, P = 0.011). Animal collections are aggregated around large cities and tourist regions, particularly coastal areas. No relationship between demographic variables and visitor numbers was found (Pearson correlation: n = 34, r = 0.268, P = 0.126), which suggests that the popularity of a zoo''s collection relative to the types and numbers of species kept is more indicative of a collection''s visitor numbers than its surrounding demographic figures. Zoos should incorporate generating high popularity scores as part of their collection planning strategies, to ensure that they thrive in the future, not only as tourist attractions but also as major conservation organizations.     

Influence of zoo visitor presence on the behavior of captive Indian gaur (Bos gaurus gaurus) in a zoological park

Visitors to zoos can be a source of potential disturbance and stress to some captive, nonhuman animals in the wild. To determine the influence of visitor presence on captive bison (Bos gaurus gaurus), the study analyzed the behavior of 4 individuals at the Arignar Anna Zoological Park, India. The study often observed the behavior of the animals on visitor-present days and on days when visitors were absent. In the presence of zoo visitors, the bison showed a higher level of intragroup aggression and moving behavior. In contrast, the bison rested more when no visitors were present. The results revealed that the presence of zoo visitors significantly influenced the behavior of captive bison and thereby may have affected their welfare.     

An hourly variation in zoo visitor interest: measurement and significance for animal welfare research

A methodological difficulty facing welfare research on nonhuman animals in the zoo is the large number of uncontrolled variables due to variation within and between study sites. Zoo visitors act as uncontrolled variables, with number, density, size, and behavior constantly changing. This is worrisome because previous research linked visitor variables to animal behavioral changes indicative of stress. There are implications for research design: Studies not accounting for visitors' effect on animal welfare risk confounding (visitor) variables distorting their findings. Zoos need methods to measure and minimize effects of visitor behavior and to ensure that there are no hidden variables in research models. This article identifies a previously unreported variable—hourly variation (decrease) in visitor interest—that may impinge on animal welfare and validates a methodology for measuring it. That visitor interest wanes across the course of the day has important implications for animal welfare management; visitor effects on animal welfare are likely to occur, or intensify, during the morning or in earlier visits when visitor interest is greatest. This article discusses this issue and possible solutions to reduce visitor effects on animal well-being.     

Pregnancy diagnosis in zoo animals by estrogen determination in feces

Estrogen concentration in feces was investigated in five different herbivorous species of zoo animals. Using a nonspecific estrogen radioimmunoassay, in four species (red buffalo, yak, Grevy's zebra, and Nubian ibex) pregnancy was revealed by measuring estrogen concentration in feces. In hippopotamus, the levels of fecal estrogens were not different between pregnant and nonpregnant animals.     

Prevalence and characterization of Chlamydia DNA in zoo animals in Japan

Because many people visit zoos, prevention of zoonoses is important from the standpoint of public health. This study examined the prevalence of Chlamydia among zoo animals in Japan by PCR and characterized these bacteria by performing phylogenetic analyses of the sequences of the variable domain (VD) 2 and VD4 regions of the ompA gene, which encodes the Chlamydia major outer membrane protein. Fecal samples were collected from 1150 zoo animals in five zoos and examined for Chlamydia DNA. Chlamydia psittaci DNA was found in 3.9% of mammals, 7.2% of birds and 8.1% of reptiles. The prevalence of Chlamydia pneumoniae DNA was significantly higher in reptiles (5.8%) than in mammals (0.3%) and birds (0.3%). Phylogenetic analysis of the ompA VD2 region from 18 samples showed that nine were in three different clusters containing C. psittaci strains, six were in a cluster containing C. pneumoniae strains and three each formed a distinct branch. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis of the ompA VD4 region showed that C. pneumoniae DNAs from reptiles were close to those from human patients. The C. pneumoniae DNAs from the European glass lizard, Emerald tree boa, and Panther chameleon were classified in clusters that were distinct from other strains, suggesting that these reptiles had each been infected with a specific C. pneumoniae genotype. This study showed that diverse Chlamydia strains have been prevalent among a variety of zoo animals.     

The gap in technology for visitor experience in a zoo: A case study in Indonesia

Technology has routinely been used in zoos to enhance the visitor experience, for public education and for conservation awareness. However, studies into technology-aided exhibits in zoos have thus far been limited to zoos in western society. This article reports on an Indonesian zoo deploying new technology in its exhibits and how visitors interacted with these exhibits. A case study guided both an investigation of the visitors' technology usage of zoo exhibits and zoo implementation of technological processes. Interviews with visitors, zoo staff, and managers were conducted and analyzed and these were supplemented with on-site observations. The results indicated that the majority of zoo visitors did not use the technological applications provided by the zoo. In addition, there was found to be a significant lack of staff engagement in the consultation, design, implementation, and maintenance of the technology. Correlations were found between visitors' level of technology usage, their reading of signage, their day-to-day technology usage, and their conservation knowledge. The findings suggest that an understanding of visitor' behavior, active staff engagement in the development and implementation of new technology, in addition to emotion-inducing interpretation, and purposefully guided interactions, could increase the use of technology at a zoo and thus enhance positive visitor engagement, ultimately resulting in heightened educational as well as conservational outcomes.     

Toward a science of welfare for animals in the zoo

Although the accredited institutions of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums have all committed to enhancing the welfare of nonhuman animals, acceptable standards and best practices are still under debate. Currently, experts from zoos and the field hold widely divergent opinions about exhibition and management standards for elephants. Standards and practices for managing nonhuman primates provide a model for other nonhuman creatures exhibited in zoos and aquariums. Examining the key issues for primates demonstrates the value of applying scientific data before promulgating standards. The field of applied behavior analysis provides a wealth of information to frame the debate. Animal behaviorists have contributed to an emerging science of animal welfare, which may provide a foundation for empirical zoo management, standards, and practices.     

Listening after the animals: sound and pastoral care in the zoo

In anthropology and across the humanities and social sciences, zoos have tended to be theorized as places of spectacle. Scholars often focus on the ways in which these institutions enable the viewing of other-than-human animals by human publics. This article, however, uses sound-focused ethnographic fieldwork to engage with two UK zoos and to describe a particular mode of cross-species listening which is enacted by zookeepers. The concepts of pastoral care and control discussed by Foucault and applied to the zoo context by Braverman are productively reworked and reorientated in order to understand this form of listening. The article also demonstrates the interconnectedness of keeper, visitor, and animal sound worlds, in the process generating an original perspective that complements and enriches conventional zoo studies.     

Characteristics of Yersinia spp. isolated from wild and zoo animals

Thirteen strains of Yersinia spp. were isolated at the Rome zoo and at Castelporziano, a game preserve near Rome. The strains were tested for calcium dependency, autoagglutination, heat-stable toxin production, 50% minimum lethal dose in mice (LD50), pyrazinamidase activity and content of plasmids by electrophoresis in agarose gel. The former three tests were negative for all strains, the LD50 was always greater than or equal to 1 X 10(7.6) CFU/ml and pyrazinamidase activity was positive for all strains. Electrophoresis revealed the presence of two plasmids of 27 and 66 megadaltons (MDa) in the two strains of Y. enterocolitica of serotype 027 isolated from animals in the zoo. The two strains of the same species and serotype, isolated from wild animals harboured a 42-MDa plasmid. A small plasmid of 2 MDa was found in two strains of Y. enterocolitica of serotype 07.8 from two subsequent samples of a zoo animal.     

The effects of visitor density and intensity on the behavior of two captive jaguars (Panthera onca)

Several researchers have reported significant effects of visitor density and intensity on captive animal behavior. This study determined whether this was the case for 2 captive jaguars housed at the Woodland Park Zoo, Seattle, WA. Subjects were monitored for changes in behavior as a function of visitor density and intensity. The jaguars were observed for 8 hr per week for 29 weeks—March 31 until October 11, 1998—for a total of 230 hr. Continuous frequency sampling was used, and visitor density and intensity were recorded every minute. Parametric statistics were used to test for correlations between behavior and density, intensity, or a combination of the two. Both density and intensity were significant for time spent non-visible for both cats, and intensity showed a significant effect on the female's pacing behavior. In addition, the male cat exhibited a trend for increased aggression based on both visitor density and intensity and a trend of intensity affecting his social behavior. In conclusion, both density and intensity had a significant effect on behavior, with intensity showing a larger effect.     

Factors influencing stereotyped behavior of primates in a zoo

Stereotyped behavior is the uniform repetition of a motor pattern that occurs at a higher frequency than considered typical for a species when observed in a natural environment. Stereotypies may be considered atypical behavior and usually indicate that an animal's psychological welfare is at a suboptimal level. Instantaneous scans at 30-sec intervals during 20-min observation periods were conducted on eight primate species at the St. Louis Zoo to determine frequency of occurrence of stereotyped behavior. Results indicated that many biotic and abiotic factors were related to the frequency of stereotyped behavior by captive primates, although rearing method was more important than present environmental conditions. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Visitors' effects on the welfare of animals in the zoo: a review

Since the 1970s, research about zoo visitors' effects on the welfare of nonhuman animals in captivity has intensified. Numerous studies have shown that characteristics such as visitor presence, density, activity, size, and position are associated with animal behavioral and—to alesser extent physiological—changes. Studies usually interpret these changes as negative (undesirable) or positive (enriching), but it remains unclear whether they significantly impinge on animal welfare. To make confident conclusions about visitors' effects necessitates more studies using (a) a wider range of animal groupings, (b) measures of stress, (c) visitor-animal variables, and (d) other methodological improvements In the meantime, in addition to further research, individual zoos need to emphasize (a) monitoring the stress indicators of their captive animals, (b) observing visitor behavior, and (c) ensuring that staffs are aware of the “visitor effect” concept.     

Seroepidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii in zoo animals in selected zoos in the midwestern United States

Toxoplasma gondii infections in zoo animals are of interest because many captive animals die of clinical toxoplasmosis and because of the potential risk of exposure of children and elderly to T. gondii oocysts excreted by cats in the zoos. Seroprevalence of T. gondii antibodies in wild zoo felids, highly susceptible zoo species, and feral cats from 8 zoos of the midwestern United States was determined by using the modified agglutination test (MAT). A titer of 1:25 was considered indicative of T. gondii exposure. Among wild felids, antibodies to T. gondii were found in 6 (27.3%) of 22 cheetahs (Acynonyx jubatus jubatus), 2 of 4 African lynx (Caracal caracal), 1 of 7 clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa), 1 of 5 Pallas cats (Otocolobus manul), 12 (54.5%) of 22 African lions (Panthera leo), 1 of 1 jaguar (Panthera onca), 1 of 1 Amur leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis), 1 of 1 Persian leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor), 5 (27.8%) of 18 Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica), 1 of 4 fishing cats (Prionailurus viverrinus), 3 of 6 pumas (Puma concolor), 2 of 2 Texas pumas (Puma concolor stanleyana), and 5 (35.7%) of 14 snow leopards (Uncia uncia). Antibodies were found in 10 of 34 feral domestic cats (Felis domesticus) trapped in 3 zoos. Toxoplasma gondii oocysts were not found in any of the 78 fecal samples from wild and domestic cats. Among the macropods, antibodies were detected in 1 of 3 Dama wallabies (Macropus eugenii), 1 of 1 western grey kangaroo (Macropus fuliginosus), 1 of 2 wallaroos (Macropus robustus), 6 of 8 Bennett's wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus), 21 (61.8%) of 34 red kangaroos (Macropus rufus), and 1 of 1 dusky pademelon (Thylogale brunii). Among prosimians, antibodies were detected in 1 of 3 blue-eyed black lemurs (Eulemur macaco flavifrons), 1 of 21 ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta), 2 of 9 red-ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata rubra), and 2 of 4 black- and white-ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata). Among the avian species tested, 2 of 3 bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) were seropositive. Among 7 possible risk factors, sex, freezing meat temperature (above -13 C vs. below -13 C), washing vegetables thoroughly, frequency of feral cat sightings on zoo grounds (occasionally vs. frequently), frequency of feral cat control programs, capability of feral cats to enter hay/grain barn, and type of animal exhibit, exhibiting animals in open enclosures was the only factor identified as a significant risk (OR 3.22, P = 0.00).