Characterization of Acetic Acid Bacteria in Traditional Acetic Acid Fermentation of Rice Vinegar (Komesu) and Unpolished Rice Vinegar (Kurosu) Produced in Japan

Bacterial strains were isolated from samples of Japanese rice vinegar (komesu) and unpolished rice vinegar (kurosu) fermented by the traditional static method. Fermentations have never been inoculated with a pure culture since they were started in 1907. A total of 178 isolates were divided into groups A and B on the basis of enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus-PCR and random amplified polymorphic DNA fingerprinting analyses. The 16S ribosomal DNA sequences of strains belonging to each group showed similarities of more than 99% with Acetobacter pasteurianus. Group A strains overwhelmingly dominated all stages of fermentation of both types of vinegar. Our results indicate that appropriate strains of acetic acid bacteria have spontaneously established almost pure cultures during nearly a century of komesu and kurosu fermentation.     

Aerobic submerged fermentation by acetic acid bacteria for vinegar production: Process and biotechnological aspects

Strictly aerobic acetic acid bacteria (AAB) have a long history of use in fermentation processes, and the conversion of ethanol to acetic acid for the production of vinegar is the most well-known application.At the industrial scale, vinegar is mainly produced by submerged fermentation, which refers to an aerobic process in which the ethanol in beverages such as spirits, wine or cider is oxidized to acetic acid by AAB. Submerged fermentation requires robust AAB strains that are able to oxidize ethanol under selective conditions to produce high-titer acetic acid. Currently submerged fermentation is conducted by unselected AAB cultures, which are derived from previous acetification stocks and maintained by repeated cultivation cycles.In this work, submerged fermentation for vinegar production is discussed with regard to advances in process optimization and parameters (oxygen availability, acetic acid content and temperature) that influence AAB activity. Furthermore, the potential impact arising from the use of selected AAB is described.Overcoming the acetification constraints is a main goal in order to facilitate innovation in submerged fermentation and to create new industry-challenging perspectives.     

Characterization by plasmid profile analysis of acetic acid bacteria from wine, spirit and cider acetators for industrial vinegar production

The fermentation in industrial high acid submerged fermenters of wine, spirit or cider into vinegar was investigated by direct analysis of the plasmid patterns of the acetic acid bacteria involved. The strains were different in all samples. One strain from a red wine acetator was isolated by the double layer agar technique and proved to be the main fermenting organism. After inoculation of an acetator with this strain, the initiation of acidification was accelerated. Inoculation with spirit vinegar organisms led to immediate acidification. The spirit vinegar organisms were outnumbered after 12 d by fortuitously-occurring, highly adapted red wine vinegar bacteria. Over-oxidation was due to physiological regulation, a genetical change by plasmid loss or occurrence of new organisms was not observed.     

Isolation and classification of acetic acid bacteria from high percentage vinegar fermentations

Summary A method for growing acetic acid bacteria from high percentage submerged vinegar fermentations was established by overflowing soft agar, containing acetic acid, with fermenting reactor fluid. Mixed cultures were found in a submerged process that was working well (1), in a submerged process that had broken down (2), and in a vinegar generator (3). The strains differed in part from each other with respect to tolerance towards acetic acid, ethanol, pH and in other physiological criteria. All strains that were isolated from (1) and some from (3) were specialized for acetate media as they needed acetic acid and low pH values (2.1–3.8) in addition to yeast extract and glucose or ethanol. We suppose that they belonged to the acetic acid-producing strains active in the process. None of the strains derived from (2) was of this acetophilic type. All except one of the stains from (2) belonged to the species Acetobacter hansenii, the other cultures were of A. pasteurianus.     

Traditional healthful fermented products of Japan

A variety of fermentation products, such as foods containing probiotic bacteria, black rice vinegar (kurosu), soy sauce (shoyu), soybean-barley paste (miso), natto and tempeh, are sold in food stores in Japan. These fermented food products are produced by traditional methods that exploit mixed cultures of various non-toxic microorganisms. These microorganisms include lactic acid bacteria, acetic acid bacteria, sake yeast, koji molds and natto bacteria. Many traditional fermented foods have been studied and their effects on metabolism and/or immune system have been demonstrated in animal and/or human cells. This review summarizes the scientific basis for the effects of these traditional food products, which are currently produced commercially in Japan.     

Induction of apoptosis in human leukemia cells by naturally fermented sugar cane vinegar (kibizu) of Amami Ohshima Island

Naturally fermented vinegar such as Kibizu (sugar cane vinegar in Amami Ohshima, Japan), Kurozu (black rice vinegar in Kagoshima, Japan), Kouzu (black rice vinegar in China) and red wine vinegar in Italy had potent radical-scavenging activity analyzed by DPPH method. For the elucidation of food factor for cancer prevention contained in naturally fermented vinegar, the induction of apoptosis in human leukemia cell HL-60 was investigated with sugar cane vinegar Kibizu. Fraction eluted by 40% methanol from Amberlite XAD 2 chromatography of sugar cane vinegar showed potent radical scavenging activity. The fraction also showed the activity repressing growth of typical human leukemia cells such as HL-60, THP-1, Molt-4, U-937, Jurkat, Raji and K-562. On the other hand, the fraction did not have any growth inhibition activity against human fetal lung cell TIG-1. The most potent radical-scavenging activity and the growth repression activity of the leukemia cell were observed in the same chromatographic fraction of methanol 40%. From cell sorting FACS analyses, electron microscopic observations and cytochemical staining of chromatin and nuclear segments in human leukemia cell HL-60 treated with the active fraction, it was concluded that apoptosis was induced in the leukemia cell by the fraction of sugar cane vinegar and resulted in the repression of growth of the human leukemia cells. Chromatographic fraction of sugar cane juice eluted by 20% methanol showed potent activities of radical-scavenging and growth repression of HL-60. These results led us the consideration that active components in sugar cane juice could be converted to more lipophilic compounds with activity to induce apoptosis in HL-60 by microbial fermentation with yeast and acetic acid bacteria.     

Effect of glasswort (Salicornia herbacea L.) on microbial community variations in the vinegar-making process and vinegar characteristics

Three types of nuruk were made from rice, wheat, and a rice-glasswort (6:4) mixture. Nuruk, makgeolli, and vinegar were manufactured with rice nuruk (RN), wheat nuruk (WN), and rice-glasswort nuruk (RGN). The saccharifying activity and ethanol productivity of nuruk, polyphenol content in makgeolli, and acetic acid and polyphenol content in the vinegar were increased as the result of the addition of glasswort. The variable region of 18S- or 16S-rDNA amplified with genomic DNA extracted directly from nuruk, makgeolli- and vinegar-making cultures was analyzed via temperature gradient gel electrophoresis (TGGE). The sequence of the 18S-rDNA variable region extracted from the TGGE gel for nuruk was more than 95% homologous with Aspergillus sp and that for the makgeolli-making culture was more than 95% homologous with Saccharomyces sp and Saccharomycodes sp. The sequence of the 16S-rDNA variable region extracted from TGGE gel for the vinegar-making culture was more than 95% homologous, primarily with the Acetobacter sp. The eukaryotic and prokaryotic diversity in the nuruk, makgeolli-making, and vinegar-making cultures was not significantly altered by the addition of glasswort. Prokaryotic diversity was higher than eukaryotic diversity in the nuruk, but eukaryotic diversity was higher than prokaryotic diversity in the makgeolli-making culture, on the basis of the TGGE patterns. No 18S-rDNA was amplified from the DNA extracted from the vinegar-making culture. In conclusion, the glasswort may be not simply an activator for the growth of microorganisms during the fermentation of nuruk, makgeolli, or vinegar, but also a nutritional supplement that improves the quality of vinegar.     

Antihypertensive effects of acetic acid and vinegar on spontaneously hypertensive rats

To clarify the possibility of a preventive effect of dietary vinegar on blood pressure, long-term administration of vinegar or the acetic acid to SHR was examined. As a result, it was observed that acetic acid itself, the main component of vinegar, significantly reduced both blood pressure (p<0.05) and renin activity (p<0.01) compared to controls given no acetic acid or vinegar, as well as vinegar. There were no significant differences in angiotensin I-converting enzyme activity in various organs. As for the mechanism of this function, it was suggested that this reduction in blood pressure may be caused by the significant reduction in renin activity and the subsequent decrease in angiotensin II. From this study, it was also suggested that the antihypertensive effect of vinegar is mainly due to the acetic acid in it.     

Genome sequence of Gluconacetobacter sp. strain SXCC-1, isolated from Chinese vinegar fermentation starter

Gluconacetobacter strains are prominent bacteria during traditional vinegar fermentation. Here, we report a draft genome sequence of Gluconacetobacter sp. strain SXCC-1. This strain was isolated from a fermentation starter (Daqu) used for commercial production of Shanxi vinegar, the best-known vinegar of China.     

醋酸菌中CRISPR位点的比较基因组学与进化分析

CRISPR (Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)是近几年发现的一种广泛存在于细菌和古菌中,能够应对外源DNA干扰(噬菌体、病毒、质粒等),并提供免疫机制的重复序列结构。CRISPR系统通常由同向重复序列、前导序列、间隔序列和CRISPR相关蛋白组成。本研究以醋酸发酵中常见3个属醋杆菌属(Acetobacter)、葡糖醋杆菌属(Gluconacetobacter)和葡糖杆菌属(Gluconobacter)的48个菌株为研究对象,通过其基因组上CRISPR相关基因序列的生物信息学分析,探索CRISPR位点在醋酸菌中的多态性及其进化模式。结果表明48株醋酸菌中有32株存在CRISPR结构,大部分CRISPR-Cas结构属于type I-E和type I-C类型。除了葡糖杆菌属外,葡糖醋杆菌属和醋杆菌属中的部分菌株含有II类的CRISPR-Cas系统结构(CRISPR-Cas9)。来自不同属菌株的CRISPR结构中重复序列具有较强的保守性,而且部分菌株CRISPR结构中的前导序列具有保守的motif (与基因的转录调控有关)及启动子序列。进化树分析表明cas1适合用于醋酸菌株的分类,而不同菌株间cas1基因的进化与重复序列的保守性相关,预示它们可能受相似的功能选择压力。此外,间隔序列的数量与噬菌体数量及插入序列(Insertion sequence, IS)数量有正相关的趋势,说明醋酸菌在进化过程中可能正不断受新的外源DNA入侵。醋酸菌中CRISPR结构位点的分析,为进一步研究不同醋酸菌株对醋酸胁迫耐受性差异及其基因组稳定性的分子机制奠定了基础。     

耐乙酸乳杆菌的筛选及其产乳酸特性

【背景】耐受乙酸的乳酸菌是传统谷物醋醋酸发酵过程中产生乳酸及其风味衍生物的重要功能微生物。【目的】从镇江香醋醋醅中分离鉴定具有耐乙酸特性的乳酸菌,并评价不同条件下该菌株的产乳酸能力。【方法】利用4%(体积比)乙酸含量的MRS培养基分离耐乙酸乳酸菌;对其进行16S rRNA基因鉴定、基因组测序、形态观察以及生理生化特性研究;考察不同乙酸浓度、葡萄糖浓度、发酵温度和时间对菌株产乳酸能力的影响。【结果】分离得到一株可耐受6%乙酸的乳杆菌Lactobacillus sp. JN500903;在厌氧静置、接种量5%、乙酸浓度5%、葡萄糖浓度40 g/L、发酵温度37°C、发酵时间10 d条件下,该菌株乳酸产量为16.1 g/L。【结论】乳杆菌JN500903能够耐受6%乙酸浓度,具有在酸性环境下合成乳酸的能力,有一定的应用潜力。     

Generation of antitumor active neutral medium-sized alpha-glycan in apple vinegar fermentation

The physiologically active substances in apple vinegar have not yet been chemically characterized. We studied the biological functions of apple vinegar produced from crushed apples, and found that the constituent neutral medium-sized alpha-glycan (NMalphaG) acts as an antitumor agent against experimental mouse tumors. NMalphaG is a homoglycan composed of glucose having a molecular weight of about 10,000 and a branched structure bearing alpha (1-4,6) linkages.In this study, we clarified the origin of NMalphaG in apple vinegar by examination of its content in alcohol and acetic acid fermentation products sequentially. We found that NMalphaG appeared in acetic acid fermentation, but not in alcohol fermentation. Furthermore we investigated NMalphaG origin using acetic acid fermentation from alcohol fortifiied apple without alcohol fermentation and from raw material with varying amounts of pomace. The results indicate that NMalphaG originated in the apple fruit body and that its production requires both fermentation processes.     

Cultivation and preservation of vinegar bacteria

Ten strains of acetic acid bacteria were investigated for their characteristics of growth and metabolism. The strains were identified as those presently in use for industrial vinegar production in southern Germany. At the time of isolation from industrial acetators the total concentrations, i.e. acetic acid (w/v) plus ethanol (v/v), of the fermenting vinegars were 6.1–14.9%. The applicability of a previously described method for starter preparation was examined for the various isolates as well as for the type strains of species of the genera Gluconobacter and Acetobacter. Isolates from cider or wine vinegar fermentations grew readily in RAE-medium to total counts of >1×10⁹ cells ml⁻¹. For the cultivation of strains isolated from spirit vinegar fermentations AE-medium proved most suitable. Cultures of these strains exhibited lag phases of 2–5 days and grew up to total counts of <1×10⁹ cells ml⁻¹. All type strains could be grown on RAE-agar. The use of 20% malt extract as cryo-protectant was effective for the preservation of all strains. Upon revitalization the cultures were suitable as inoculum for starting fermentations in pilot acetators. 16S rRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probes were constructed which were species specific for Gluconobacter oxydans or Acetobacter aceti or group specific for Acetobacter europaeus/Acetobacter xylinum. The probes hybridized with the DNA of the respective type strains. Four isolates were allotted to A. europaeus/A. xylinum applying the group specific probe. The DNA of six of the Acetobacter sp. hybridized with none of the probes.     

醋酸菌耐酸机理及其群体感应研究新进展

醋酸菌(acetic acid bacteria,AAB)是一类严格好氧的革兰氏阴性细菌,因其乙醇氧化生成醋酸能力强、高耐醋酸等特性而成为食醋发酵的主要工业菌种。醋酸菌的耐酸性对于高酸度食醋生产具有重要意义。随着醋酸菌的蛋白组学及基因组学研究的深入,其糖代谢、蛋白质代谢、脂代谢及应激响应等分子机制或过程也得到更多的阐释;葡糖醋杆菌中有关群体感应系统的研究报道则为从信号通路角度探索醋酸菌的耐酸机制提供了新的思路,进而对于高耐酸醋酸菌的选育以及醋酸发酵工艺的优化具重要的参考意义。本文在简介蛋白组、基因组研究的基础上,着重综述醋酸菌群体感应的研究进展。     

巴氏醋杆菌高酸度醋发酵过程的能量代谢分析

【目的】初步分析了Acetobacter pasteurianus CICIM B7003-02在醋酸发酵过程中的能量代谢状况, 通过强化细胞能量代谢水平以提升菌株高酸发酵的产酸强度。【方法】探明A. pasteurianus CICIM B7003-02在高酸度醋发酵的不同阶段中三羧酸循环底物含量、乙醇呼吸链酶活及能量代谢酶基因的转录水平等代谢特点, 分析用于醋酸发酵的产能代谢途径及其作用。【结果】发现A. pasteurianus CICIM B7003-02在醋酸发酵初期, 主要通过苹果酸/琥珀酸回补偶联有氧呼吸途径产能。进入醋酸快速积累阶段, 乙醇呼吸链为主要供能代谢途径。发酵后期苹果酸/琥珀酸回补途径配合乙醇呼吸链供能。基于上述研究, 采取添加琥珀酸和苹果酸强化细胞产能, 促进高酸度醋发酵强度。【结论】能量供给影响醋杆菌耐酸能力和醋酸生产能力。确定乙醇呼吸链为醋酸发酵的主要供能系统。强化细胞产能手段可达到提高醋酸发酵强度的目的。     

镇江香醋醋醅抑菌活性及机理的初步分析

【目的】评价镇江香醋醋酸发酵过程中醋醅及其主要酿醋功能微生物的抑菌活性。【方法】采用琼脂扩散法评价醋醅和功能微生物的抑菌效果,并考察加热、蛋白酶解、透析等不同处理对发酵液抑菌活性的影响。【结果】醋醅水提取液及4种酿醋功能微生物(Acetobacter pasteurianus、A.pomorum、Lactobacillus helveticus、L.plantarum)的发酵上清液对4种指示菌具有明显的生长抑制效果。发酵上清液中的抑菌活性物质具有一定耐热性和蛋白酶敏感性,分子量小于8 k D。【结论】镇江香醋醋醅及其所含醋酸杆菌和乳酸杆菌对环境微生物具有生长抑制活性,且抑菌活性物质的种类具有多样性。     

Growth of nisin-producing lactococci in cooked rice supplemented with soybean extract and its application to inhibition of Bacillus subtilis in rice miso

Lactic acid fermentation of cooked rice and rice koji by supplementation with soybean extract (SBE) and its application to rice miso fermentation were investigated. By supplementing the cooked rice with SBE, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) grew well without any unfavorable effects on the rice such as off-flavor or coloration. Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis IFO12007 (Lc. lactis, a producer of the bacteriocin nisin) proliferated at 10(8 to approximately 9) cells/g after 24 h of incubation and produced high activity of nisin. The fermented rice with Lc. lactis strongly inhibited not only Bacillus subtilis ATCC19659 but also the other Bacillus strains. While some strains of LAB markedly inhibited the growth of Asp. oryzae, resulting in failure of koji fermentation, Lc. lactis did not affect the growth of these molds. When Lc. lactis was used for rice miso fermentation as a lactic acid starter culture, Lc. lactis rapidly proliferated and produced high nisin activity of 6,400 IU/g, in the steamed rice, resulting in complete growth inhibition of B. subtilis, which had been inoculated at the beginning of the koji fermentation. The rice miso after 12 weeks of aging had a suitable pH, and favorable taste and color. Furthermore, hyposalting of rice miso could be done without difficulty by lactic acid fermentation of both rice and soybeans.     

Metabolite profiling and bioactivity of rice koji fermented by Aspergillus strains

In this study, the metabolite profiles of three Aspergillus strains during rice koji fermentation were compared. In the partial least squares discriminant analysis-based gas chromatography-mass spectrometry data sets, the metabolite patterns of A. oryzae (KCCM 60345) were clearly distinguished from A. kawachii (KCCM 60552) and only marginal differences were observed for A. oryzae (KCCM 60551) fermentation. In the 2 days fermentation samples, the overall metabolite levels of A. oryzae (KCCM 60345) were similar to the A. oryzae (KCCM 60551) levels and lower than the A. kawachii (KCCM 60552) levels. In addition, we identified discriminators that were mainly contributing tyrosinase inhibition (kojic acid) and antioxidant activities (pyranonigrin A) in A. oryzae (KCCM 60345) and A. kawachii (KCCM 60552) inoculated rice koji, respectively. In this study, we demonstrated that the optimal inoculant Aspergillus strains and fermentation time for functional rice koji could be determined through a metabolomics approach with bioactivity correlations.     

Lactic acid production from submerged fermentation of broken rice using undefined mixed culture

The present work aimed to characterize and optimize the submerged fermentation of broken rice for lactic acid (LA) production using undefined mixed culture from dewatered activated sludge. A microorganism with amylolytic activity, which also produces LA, Lactobacillus amylovorus, was used as a control to assess the extent of mixed culture on LA yield. Three level full factorial designs were performed to optimize and define the influence of fermentation temperature (20–50?°C), gelatinization time (30–60 min) and broken rice concentration in culture medium (40–80 g L^?1) on LA production in pure and undefined mixed culture. LA production in mixed culture (9.76 g L^?1) increased in sixfold respect to pure culture in optimal assessed experimental conditions. The optimal conditions for maximizing LA yield in mixed culture bioprocess were 31?°C temperature, 45 min gelatinization time and 79 g L^?1 broken rice concentration in culture medium. This study demonstrated the positive effect of undefined mixed culture from dewatered activated sludge to produce LA from culture medium formulated with broken rice. In addition, this work establishes the basis for an efficient and low-cost bioprocess to manufacture LA from this booming agro-industrial by-product.     

Acetobacter senegalensis isolated from mango fruits: Its polyphasic characterization and adaptation to protect against stressors in the industrial production of vinegar: A review

It has been more than a decade since Acetobacter senegalensis was isolated, identified and described as a thermotolerant strain of acetic acid bacteria. It was isolated from mango fruits in Senegal and used for industrial vinegar production in developing countries, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa. The strain was tested during several spirit vinegar fermentation processes at relatively high temperatures in accordance with African acclimation. The upstream fermentation process had significant stress factors, which are highlighted in this review so that the fermentation process can be better controlled. Due to its high industrial potential, this strain was extensively investigated by diverse industrial microbiologists worldwide; they concentrated on its microbiological, physiological and genomic features. A research group based in Belgium proposed an important project for the investigation of the whole-genome sequence of A. senegalensis. It would use a 454-pyrosequencing technique to determine and corroborate features that could give this strain significant diverse bio-industrial applications. For instance, its application in cocoa bean fermentation has made it a more suitable acetic acid bacterium for the making of chocolate than Acetobacter pasteurianus. Therefore, in this paper, we present a review that summarizes the current research on A. senegalensis at its microbial and genomic levels and also its specific bio-industrial applications, which can provide economic opportunities for African agribusiness. This review summarizes the physiological and genomic characteristics of Acetobacter senegalensis, a thermotolerant strain isolated from mango fruits and intended to be used in industrial vinegar fermentation processes. It also explores other bio-industrial applications such as cocoa fermentation. Vinegar fermentation is usually performed with mesophilic strains in temperate regions of the world. Developing countries, such as Senegal, import vinegar or make ‘fake’ vinegar by diluting acetic acid obtained from petrochemicals. The use of a thermotolerant Acetobacter senegalensis strain as a solid functional starter culture, as well as the design of a new adapted bioreactor, has significantly contributed to food security and the creation of small- to medium-sized enterprises that produce mango vinegar in West Africa.