A simple action treshold for timing applications of a granulosis virus to controlPieris rapae [Lep.: Pieridae]

Pieris rapae (L.) an important pest of cole crops in the northeastern United States, is susceptible to a granulosis virus,Pieris rapae GV (PrGV), that has been shown to be an effective control measure by researchers in several countries. As an alternative to weekly applications of virus to protect cabbage, we tested the use of an action threshold of one small (first-third instar) larva per plant. Results were compared with those obtained using the same threshold with permethrin, and with weekly applications of virus. Plots treated weekly with virus received 5 applications but the action threshold was exceeded only once. In all virus-treated plots, numbers of large (fourth-fifth instar) larvae remained below 0.35 per plant, and were lower at the end of the season (0.07 in plots treated weekly and 0.1 in plots treated once) than in either the untreated or permethrin-treated plots (0.5). In late August, numbers of large larvae in the check plots reached almost 3 per plant. At harvest the number of feeding holes over 0.3 cm in diameter in the 4 innermost frame and the 4 wrapper leaves were counted. Check plots differed from treated plots by an average of 124.2±6.5 holes per plant in the frame and wrapper leave; virus-treated plots had 51.1±6.9 holes more than the permethrin plots. The difference in overall damage between plots treated 5 times with virus during the season and those treated once was not significant. Plots treated once with virus had significantly more damage (7.6±2.7) to wrapper leaves than those treated five times and marketability ratings were somewhat lower, based on fresh market standards. There were no significant differences in head weight among the treatments. At harvest, a high proportion of larvae collected from the check plots were diseased (77% versus an average of 46% in the treated plots). Because of the high numbers of large larvae in the check plots in late August and the extensive damage to plants, we assumed that virus did not affect a significant number of larvae in these plots until late in the growing season. These results indicate the usefulness of PrGV in a cabbage IPM program and that the use of action thresholds can be highly effective, particularly when insect numbers only occasionally reach damaging levels. While cabbage treated with permethrin had the least amount of injury, that treated weekly with virus was not significantly different by fresh market standards, and all cabbages treated with virus met processing standards. For the fresh market, in which cosmetic standards are more important, PrGV may have to be used weekly or with an action threshold lower than one small larva per plant.      

The effects of a granulosis virus infection and temperature on the food consumption ofPierus rapae [Lep.: Pieridae]

The effects of temperature and granulosis virus infection both on the development ofPieris rapae L. and the area of cabbage leaf consumed by larvae were investigated. The duration of the larval period increased from 12.9 days at 24°C to 45.3 days at 13°C. The thermal constant for larval development was 196.1 day °C above the threshold temperature of 9.4°C. The area of cabbage leaf consumed per day increased with larval age so that 5th instar larvae ate 70.9% of the total food consumption. Virus infection extended the larval instar in which death occurred and reduced the potential food consumption by as much as 99.6%. Larger virus doses reduced food consumption within the same instar more than smaller doses. The results are discussed in relation to the feasibility of using granulosis virus for the control ofP. rapae.

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Résumé L'étude a porté sur les effets de la température et de l'infection provoquée par le virus de la granulose sur le développement dePieris rapae L. et la quantité de feuillage de chou consommée par les larves. La durée du stade larvaire a augmenté de 12,9 j à 24°C à 45,3 j à 13°C. La constante thermique pour le développement larvaire a été de 196,1°C au-delà du seuil de température de 9,4°C. La superficie de feuillage consommée par jour s'est accrue en fonction de l'age des larves de sorte que les larves au 5^e stade ont mangé 70,9% de la superficie totale consommée. L'infection provoquée par le virus a augmenté la durée du stade de mortalité et a diminué la consommation potentielle de feuillage de 99,6%. Des doses plus élevées de virus ont réduit la consommation dans le même stade davantage que les doses plus faibles. Les résultats sont discutés par rapport à la possibilité d'utiliser le virus de la granulose dans la lutte biologique contreP. rapae.

     

Control ofAgrotis segetum [Lep.: Noctuidae] root crops by granulosis virus

Agrotis segetum Schiff. granulosis virus (GV) propagated in Danish laboratory cultures was applied against field populations ofA. segetum in experimental latin square plots planted with beetroots, carrots and potatoes. Some test plots were isolated by net tents extending 15 cm into the soil whereas others were not caged. Plots were treated with suspensions of GV containing 10⁶ to 10⁸ capsules per ml with 50 ml being applied per m² of plot. In 4 tests in which released eggs or larvae were caged over plots, cutworm numbers and damage were reduced by approximately 80% compared to untreated plots. The comparable reductions in 3 open experiments with natural populations of cutworms were 65–75%. GV-treatment 4 days after release of eggs appeared to be more effective than treatment 10 days after release. Whereas treatments with 10⁷ and 10⁸ capsules per ml reduced damages to approximately 75%, the effect of 10⁶ Capsules was only 50%. Damage reduction by treatment with parathion varied from 50% in 2 caged experiments to approximately 20% in 2 open experiments, indicating that parathion was less effective than GV. The data indicated a residual effect of GV from one year to the next. Furthermore GV appeared to have spread at least 10 m from foci of application.     

Production and field evaluation of codling moth granulosis virus for control of Cydia pomonella in the United Kingdom

Codling moth granulosis virus (Cp GV) was produced in larvae of Cydia pomonella reared on artificial diet. The average yield of virus (9 × 10⁹capsules/larva) was increased by raising the larvae on diet containing methoprene, a juvenile hormone analogue. In field trials in 1978 and 1979, one or two high-volume applications of Cp GV at 7 × 10¹⁰ capsules/litre achieved reductions in numbers of mature larvae and damaged fruit that were little different from those obtained by two applications of azinphos-methyl. A field trial in 1980 showed that at concentrations of Cp GV ≥ 6 × 10⁸ capsules/litre, damaged diminished slowly with increasing virus concentration. Following virus application in 1980, Cp GV infectivity was reduced by half in 3 days, but some activity persisted at least 4–8 wk after spraying. The results indicate that codling moth GV is an effective control agent particularly in reducing numbers of larvae and the more severe forms of fruit damage.     

Quantitative characterization of a viremia produced by the granulosis virus infection of the cabbage looperTrichoplusia ni [Lep.: Noctuidae]

Mortality responses ofTrichoplusia ni neonate larvae fed with the homologous granulosis virus are reported. The onset, duration and intensity of the associated viremia are described. The prolonged eclipse phase of granulosis virus replication is compared with other baculoviruses.      

Activity persistence of granulosis viruses [Baculoviridae] in soils in United Kingdom and Denmark

The persistence of granulosis virus infectivity in soil has been investigated. Virus applied to soil was extracted at different times up to 1 year after the original application and the amount of virus was determined using bioassays. In this way the content of infective capsules remained was determined. It was shown that about 99% of the original virus infectivity was lost during 1 year. Together with other investigations this result indicates that leaching, passive lateral movements and degradation accounts for the main part of the loss.      

Control experiments usingAgrotis segetum granulosis virus againstAgrotis ipsilon [Lep.: Noctuidae] on tobacco seedlings in Northern Pakistan

Agrotis segetum Schiff. granulosis virus propagated in Denmark was applied against released 2nd instar larvae ofAgrotis ipsilon (Hfn.) in tobacco plots in nurseries at Peshawar and Bhurbun (Murree), Northern Pakistan. Nursery bed plots were isolated from the surroundings by net roof and plastic sheets. Granulosis virus concentrations used were 5×10⁷ and 10⁹ capsules per ml water, and 250 ml water per plot (1–4 m²). Reductions of cutworms as well as cutworm damages varied between 72 and 100% as compared to plots only treated with water. Addition of active coal to the GV did not increase reduction percentages. A possible effect of the GV could be traced one year after treatment.

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Résumé Le virus de la granulose d'Agrotis segetum Schiff. multiplié au Danemark a été appliqué contre le 2^e stade des chenilles deAgrotis ipsilon (Hfn.) dans des parcelles expérimentales à Peshawar et Bhurbun (Murree), Pakistan du nord. Les parcelles isolées avec des filets et des feuilles plastiques furent infestées artificiellement en chenilles. Les concentrations de GV utilisées furent de 5×10⁷ et 10⁹ granules par ml d'eau, 250 ml de la suspension préparée étant distribués par parcelle de 1 à 4 m². La réduction du nombre de chenilles et celui des plantes endommagées varie de 72 à 100% par rapport aux notations effectuées dans les parcelles traitées avec de l'eau pure. L'addition du charbon actif au GV n'augmente pas son effet. Une action du traitement a été retrouvée un an après l'application.

     

Oviposition pattern byCotesia ayerzai [Hym.: Braconidae] onAscia monuste [Lep.: Pieridae] under laboratory conditions

Various aspects of the parasitims of caterpillars ofAscia monuste orseis byCotesia ayerzai, were studied in laboratory choice tests. Individual ♂♂ were found to be extremely variable in ovipositional duration, as well as in the number of eggs oviposited. To simulate parasitoid dispersal, or low host density, we isolated ♂♂ for 60 min following initial exposure and compared our tests with ♂♂ which had not been isolated. No differences in (1) the number of eggs oviposited per host instar; (2) the conditional probability of host encounter; (3) host acceptance; and (4) the conditional probability of instar specific parasitism were found between these groups. Held ♂♂ did, however, reject hosts after ovipositor insertions in a higher proportion.      

Apple orchard tests on the efficacy of the granulosis virus of the codling moth,Laspeyresia pomonella [Lep.: Olethreutidae]

The protection of apples against damage by the codling moth,Laspeyresia pomonella (L.), by applications of the granulosis virus ofL. pomonella was assessed in apple orchard tests at 4 locations in Canada in 1974–1978. Sprays containing 3×10⁹ to 4×10¹⁰ granules/litre, applied 2 or 3 times per generation of codling moth larvae, reduced injury to apples by 44 to 85% compared to reductions of 72 to 98% by applications of azinphos-methyl or phosmet. Applications of the virus did not reduce numbers of arthropods predaceous on pest insects and mites.

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Résumé L'efficacité de la protection des pommes contre le carpocapse,Laspeyresia pomonella (L.), par des applications du virus de la granulose deL. pomonella a été évaluée par des assais dans 4 vergers du Canada entre 1974 et 1978. Des pulvérisations contenant de 3×10⁹ à 4×10¹⁰ granules/litre, appliquées 2 ou 3 fois par génération de larves du carpocapse des pommes, ont réduit les dommages aux pommes de 44 à 85% comparé à des réductions de 72 à 98% obtenues avec des pulvérisations d'azinphos-méthyl ou de phosmet. Les applications de virus n'ont pas réduit les populations d'arthropodes prédateurs d'insectes nuisibles et d'acariens.

     

Field evaluation ofAllorhogas pyralophagus [Hym.: Braconidae], imported into texas for biological control of the stalkborerEoreuma loftini [Lep.: Pyralidae] in sugar cane

The external, gregarious, braconid parasite,Allorhogas pyralophagus Marsh was mass released into field cages enclosing sugar cane infested with the pyralid,Eoreuma loftini (Dyar) to examine factors affecting parasitism rates and to assess the parasite's potential contribution to borer larval mortality. Three field experiments were conducted in July, September, and December, 1984. Total parasitism was 25.2% for the study and was the single most important source of borer mortality. Borers were equally susceptible to attack in leaf sheaths, whorls, and stalks in general, but larvae tunneling deep within stalks were parasitized less. An interaction between tunneling behavior of the borer and attack strategy of the parasite was important for parasite success.A. pyralophagus is probably unable to effect complete control ofE. loftini in sugar cane becauseA. pyralophagus is physically unable to parasitize borers deep in the stalks. However, the parasite may be useful as part of an intergrated pest management program, acting in concert with other parasite species, or attacking the borer in small-stemed grasses that serve as alternate host plants.      

ACactoblastis [Lep.: Phycitidae] for the biological control ofEriocereus martinii [Cactaceae] in Australia

ACactoblastis sp. was found on Harrisia cactus (Eriocereus martinii Lab.) in north-eastern Argentina. In biology and life history it is similar toCactoblastis cactorum (Berg.) though attacking different cacti. Laboratory tests and field observations demonstrate that it will only damage plants in the sub-tribeCereanae of theCactaceae. It was approved for liberation in Queensland, Australia in August 1975 for the control ofEriocereus spp., and field releases were made in October 1978.     

Interaction between the tachinid parasite,Sturmiopsis inferens and granulosis virus in the sugarcane shoot borer,Chilo infuscatellus [Lep.: Crambidae]

Competition between granulosis virus (GV) and the larval parasite,Sturmiopsis inferens Tns. (Tachinidae: Diptera), was studied in 3^rd — and 4^th — instar larvae of the sugarcane shoot borer,Chilo infuscatellus Snellen (Crambidae: Lepidoptera), under laboratory conditions. Mortality due to GV infection and parasitization was 76.8 and 47.6 per cent, respectively, when they were tested separately. But when hosts were infected simultaneously with microfeeding of GV and larval parasite, a significantly low parasitism (5.5%) was obtained compared to 74.8 per cent mortality by GV infection. When the larvae were microfed with the GV 6 days after inoculation with parasitic maggots, mortality due to the virus was reduced significantly to 20.5 per cent, but when the maggot inoculation was preceded by virus microfeeding 6 days before, parasitization was unsuccessful, while 75% of larvae died of virus. Results obtained from field — collected larvae also showed that significantly more parasite puparia were recovered from healthy larvae than from virus — infected larvae. Similar differences in parasitization were not obtained in the case of healthy or virus — infected pupae.      

Orchard trials in Canada on control ofCydia pomonella (Lep: Tortricidae) by granulosis virus

Cydia pomonella (L.), a major pest of apples in Canadian orchards, is susceptible to a granulosis virus (CpGV). Orchard trials with different formulations of CpGV in Ontario, whereC. pomonella has two generations per year, indicated that as many as seven applications of virus would be needed to maintain the percentage of fruit with deep larval entries below 4%. In Nova Scotia, where there is only one generation ofC. pomonella per year, two applications of CpGV usually were needed although, in some cases, one sufficed. The protection of fruit conferred by CpGV equalled that by the organophosphate insecticides, azinphosmethyl or phosmet, in some tests. The advantages of a selective treatment, such as CpGV, over use of broad-spectrum insecticides are discussed.

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Résumé Cydia pomonella (L.), un ravageur important du pommier dans les vergers canadiens, est sensible au virus de la granulose. Des essais en vergers utilisant deux préparations de ce virus en Ontario, oùC. pomonella présente deux generations par année, indiquent qu'il faudrait jusqu'à sept pulvérisations pour maintenir à moins de 40% la proportion de fruits portant des infestations larvaires. En Nouvelle Ecosse, oùC. pomonella ne compte qu'une seule génération par an, deux pulvérisations furent nécessaires, quoique dans certains cas une seule a suffi. Dans certains essais, le niveau de protection des fruits égalait celui fourni par les esters phosphoriques, l'azinphos-méthyle ou le phosmet. On discute des avantages des traitements sélectifs tels que le virus de la granulose en comparaison avec l'emploi des insecticides de grande polyvalence.

     

Parasitoids ofPectinophora gossypiella [Lep.: Gelechiidae] andEarias spp. [Lep.: Noctuidae] in the Punjab

Observations on the parasitoids of cotton bollworms in the Punjab were made during 1978 and 1979. The 2 trichogrammatid egg parasitoids, viz.Trichogramma achaeae Nagaraja & Nagarkatti andTrichogrammatoidea sp. nearguamensis Nagaraja (MS) were recovered fromPectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) in addition to 1 braconid egg-larval parasitoidChelonus sp. and 7 larval parasitoids, viz. 4 braconidsApanteles angaleti Muesebeck,Bracon greeni Ashsmead,Camptothlipsis sp. andRogas sp., 1 elasmid,Elasmus johnstoni Ferrière, 1 bethylid,Goniozus sp. and 1 ichneumonid,Scambus lineipes (Morley). FromEarias insulana Boisduval andEarias vittella F., 3 trichogrammatid egg parasitoids,T. achaeae, Trichogramma chilonis Ishii, andT. sp. nearguamensis 2 braconid larval parasitoids,B. greeni andRogas sp. and 1 chalcid pupal parasitoid,Brachymeria nephantidis Gahan, were recovered. One eurytomid hyperparasitoid,Eurytoma braconidis Ferrière was also recovered from the cocoons ofB. greeni. Of these parasitoids,T. achaeae, T. sp. nearguamensis, Camptothlipsis sp. andS. lineipes fromP. gossypiella, T. achaeae andB. nephantidis fromEarias spp. andE. braconidis fromB. greeni are new records.     

Large-scale production ofBactra verutana [Lep.: Tortricidae] for the biological control of nutsedge

Methods for large-scale rearing and handling of the tortricid,Bactra verutana Zeller, were developed for early-season augmentation of this insect to biologically control purple nutsedge,Cyperus rotundus L., and yellow nutsedge,C. esculentus L. A modified soybean flour-wheat germ larval diet, originally developed for the sugarcane borer,Diatraea saccharalis (L.), yielded pupae equal in weight to pupae from larvae reared on the standardBactra casein-wheat germ diet in an earlier test. An oviposition cage, constructed of 3.1-mm mesh hardware cloth in the form of a cylinder 17 cm high and 15 cm in diameter and wrapped with sheets of clear polyethylene, provided the rough-textured surface necessary for maximum oviposition. Although crowded, each female laid an average of 257 eggs, all on the polyethylene wrappers, which equaled or exceeded average producion in smooth-surfaced cages (168–204 / ♀). The sheets of eggs were placed in Erlenmeyer flasks from which the newly-hatched larvae were removed from the flasks by swirling 200 ml corn cob grits around in each flask. This procedure killed or injured 10 % of the larvae. With this techique an average 90, 500 living larvae were produced per day for field release over an 87-day period. When 22.5-ml cups of diet containing pupae were dumped in piles in screen cages or when the diet with pupae was removed from each cup and placed in a pile in the cages, only 40 % of the moths were recovered. The recovery rate was 75 % from cups nested in crossstacked 36-cell trays placed in cages. Collecting the moths for field release by aspirating 200 of them into 2-liter flasks had no effect on fecundity. With this method an average 2,675 adults were produced per day for field release over a 95-day period.     

Chamaesphecia doryliformis [Lep.: Sesiidae], a second root borer for the control ofRumex spp. [Polygonaceae] in Australia

The host-specificity and biology ofChamaesphecia doryliformis (Ochsenheimer) [Lep.: Sesiidae] are described and the insect is assessed for its potential as a biological control agent for weeds of the genusRumex (Polygonaceae) in Australia. The insect is found in the western Mediterranean region, chiefly in north Africa. Adults emerge from pupation in late spring to summer when they lay eggs. The larvae feed inside the roots of post-reproductive plants belonging to the subgeneraRumex andAcetosa. In host-specificity tests 1^st instar larvae attacked only plants of thePolygonaceae. The insect was judged safe to release in Australia after assessing its level of host-specificity, and attributes of its biology which indicate that native AustralianPolygonaceae will not be endangered.      

Intrinsic competition between the gregarious parasite,Cotesia glomeratus and the solitary parasite.Cotesia rubecula [Hymenoptera: Braconidae] for their host.Artogeia rapae [Lepidoptera: Pieridae]

The solitary endoparasite,Cotesia rubecula, was superior to the gregarious endoparasite,Cotesia glomeratus, in tests of intrinsic competition for their hostArtogeia rapae. When an egg ofC. rubecula was oviposited in the host prior to those ofC. glomeratus, C. rubecula always won the ensuing competition. When an egg ofC. rubecula was laid in the same host within 48 h after oviposition byC. glomeratus, C. rubecula was successful in more than 90% of the interactions. Even when the egg ofC. rubecula was oviposited in the same host 72 to 96 h after oviposition byC. glomeratus, C. rubecula won the competition approximately 33% of the time. The implications of intrinsic competition are discussed in relation to the establishment ofC. rubecula in an ecosystem containingA. rapae andC. glomeratus.      

Agrotis segetum granulosis virus as a control agent against field populations ofAgrotis ipsilon andA. Segetum [Lep.: Noctuidae] on tobacco,okra, potato and sugar beet in northern pakistan

Agrotis segetum Schiff granulosis virus (AsGV) propagated in Denmark was supplied against naturally occurring cutworm populations (A. ipsilon and to a less extentA. segetum) in experimental field plots of tobacco, okra, potato and sugar beet in northern Pakistan. AsGV doses varied between 4 × 10⁷ and 4 × 10¹¹ capsules per m² plot, and no. of applications between 1 and 3. One treatment with AsGV did not reduce cutworm damage significantly to tobacco seedlings and potato plants. Two treatments with AsGV reduced cutworm damage significantly. In tobacco, reduction was 64–82%, in okra and potato 85% and 77% respectively. Damage in sugar beet was reduced 78%. Three treatments with AsGV dis not reduce damage significantly better than two treatments. AsGV and the chemical insecticides Tamaran and Dieldrin, andBacillus thuringiensis (Thuricide) were about equally effective, reducing damage by 85%, 79%, 87% and 69%, respectively. No difference was found between the efficiency of highly purified AsGV to which activated charcoal was added and partially purified AsGV without charcoal.      

Occurrence and accumulation of the granulosis virus of Pieris rapae in treated field plots

The granulosis virus of Pieris rapae, the imported cabbageworm (P. rapae GV), persisted in soil after application. Virus produced by epizootics of the disease in populations of the host accumulated in soil in nontreated plots with concentrations of the virus in soil and on foliage, being similar at harvest to concentrations in virus-treated plots. Also P. rapae GV produced in epizootics of the disease increased concentrations in soil of virus-treated plots and maintained substantial residues of the virus on the foliage. Little virus accumulated in plots treated with some chemical insecticides and Bacillus thuringiensis because few host larvae survived to support late-season epizootics. Small quantities of P. rapae GV were found in heads of cabbage harvested from plots in October, but these residues were not related to plot treatment.A study in which nontreated and virus-treated plots were replanted for 2 years after treatment indicated an increase in concentrations of P. rapae GV in surface soil in years following treatment. Concentrations of P. rapae GV in soil in virus-treated and nontreated plots were similar in the autumn of the year of treatment and in subsequent years of the study. Concentrations were nearly unchanged during the winter, were reduced by cultivation preparatory to planting in the spring, and increased with epizootics of the disease in host populations in summer and autumn.P. rapae GV disease was prevalent during September and October in populations of P. rapae larvae in plots in which substantial concentrations of the virus were found and contributed to late-season control of the pest insect.