Optimization of culture conditions for the production of haloalkaliphilic thermostable protease from an extremely halophilic archaeon Halogeometricum sp. TSS101

AIMS: Isolation and screening of extreme halophilic archaeon producing extracellular haloalkaliphilic protease and optimization of culture conditions for its maximum production. METHODS AND RESULTS: Halogeometricum sp. TSS101 was isolated from salt samples and screened for the secretion of protease on gelatin and casein plates containing 20% NaCl. The archaeon was grown aerobically in a 250 ml flask containing 50 ml of (w/v) NaCl 20%; MgCl(2) 1%; KCl 0.5%; trisodium citrate 0.3%; and peptone 1%; pH 7.2 at 40 degrees C on rotary shaker. The production of enzyme was investigated at various pH, temperatures, NaCl concentrations, metal ions and different carbon and nitrogen sources. The partially purified protease had activity in a broad pH range (7.0-10.0) with optimum activity at pH 10.0 and a temperature (60 degrees C). The enzyme was thermostable and retained 70% initial activity at 80 degrees C. Maximum protease production occurred at 40 degrees C in a medium containing 20% NaCl (w/v) and 1% skim milk powder after 84 h in shaking culture. Enzyme secretion was observed at a broad pH range of 7.0-10.0. Addition of CaCl(2) (200 mmol) to the culture medium enhanced the production of protease. Protein rich flours proved to be cheap and good alternative source for enzyme production. Different osmolytes were tested for the growth and production of haloalkaliphilc protease and found that betaine and glycerol enhanced growth without secretion of the protease. Immobilization studies showed that whole cells immobilized in 2% alginate beads were stable up to 10 batches and able to secrete the protease, which attained maximum production within 60 h under shaking conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Halogeometricum sp. TSS101 secreted an extracellular haloalkaliphilic and thermostable protease. The optimum conditions required for maximum production are 20% NaCl, 1% skim milk powder and temperature at 40 degrees C. Addition of CaCl(2) (200 mmol) enhanced the enzyme production. Immobilization of whole cells in absence of NaCl proved to be useful for continuous production of haloalkaliphilic protease. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STudy: The low cost protein rich flours were used as an alternative carbon and nitrogen sources for enzyme production. Immobilization of halophilic cells in alginate beads can be used in continuous production of halophilic enzyme. The halophilic and thermostable protease from Halogeometricum sp. TSS101 is good source for industrial applications and can be a suitable source for preparation of fish sauce.     

An extracellular--pepstatin insensitive acid protease produced by Thermoplasma volcanium

In this study, some parameters for the production and caseinolytic activity of an extracellular thermostable acid protease from a thermoacidophilic archaeon Thermoplasma volcanium were determined. The highest level of growth and enzyme production were detected at pH 3.0 over an incubation period of 192 h at 60 degrees C. The pH optimum for the acid protease activity was 3.0 and the enzyme was fairly stable over a broad pH range (pH 3.0-8.0). The temperature for maximum activity of the enzyme was 55 degrees C and activity remained stable between 50 degrees C and 70 degrees C. These features could be of relevance for various biotechnological applications of this enzyme. Serine-(PMSF), cysteine-(DTT), metallo-(EDTA) and aspartate-(pepstatin) protease inhibitors did not inhibit the caseinolytic activity of the enzyme. Therefore, Tp. volcanium acid protease could be a member of the pepstatin-insensitive carboxyl proteinases.     

The effects of bioprocess parameters on extracellular proteases in a recombinant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aspergillus niger</Emphasis> B1-D

Although host proteases are often considered to have a negative impact upon heterologous protein production by filamentous fungi, relatively little is known about the pattern of their appearance in recombinant fungal bioprocesses. In the present study, we investigated extracellular proteases from a filamentous fungus, Aspergillus niger B1-D, genetically modified to secrete hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL). Our findings indicate that extracellular protease activity is only detected after the carbon source is completely utilised in batch cultures. The proteases are predominantly acid proteases and have optimal temperature for activity at around 45°C. Their activity could be partially inhibited by protease inhibitors, indicating the existence of at least four kinds of proteases in these culture fluids, aspartic-, serine-, cysteine-, and metallo-proteases. Oxygen enrichment does not have any noticeable effects on extracellular protease activity except that the onset of protease activity appears earlier in oxygen enrichment runs. Oxygen enrichment stimulates HEWL production substantially, and we propose that it is related to fungal morphology. Thermal stress imposed by raising process temperature (from 25 to 30 and 35°C) in early exponential phase, led to appearance of protease activity in the medium following the heat shock. Continued cultivation at high temperatures significantly reduced HEWL production, which was associated with increased activity of the extracellular proteases in these cultures.     

Effect of nutritional conditions on extracellular protease production by the haloalkaliphilic archaeon Natrialba magadii

AIMS: The effect of various nitrogen sources and nutritional starvation was examined on the production of an extracellular protease secreted by the haloalkaliphilic archaeon Natrialba magadii. METHODS AND RESULTS: Cell growth and proteolytic activity were measured in cells grown with different nitrogen sources. Proteolytic activity was produced in complex and easily metabolized nitrogen sources such as yeast extract, casein and casamino acids; meanwhile, ammonium repressed enzyme production. The time course and amount of protease accumulated showed an inverse correlation with growth rate and nutrient concentration. Starvation did not induce extracellular protease production. CONCLUSION: The accumulation of Nab. magadii extracellular protease is stimulated by nutrient limitation and slow growth rate indicating that it is probably induced in response to a deficit in the energetic status of the cells. Nutritional starvation did not induce protease accumulation suggesting that de novo synthesis of this protease and/or factor/s necessary for its activation are required. This enzyme may be regulated by nitrogen catabolite repression and it does not require protein substrates for induction. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: These results contribute to the basic knowledge on protease regulation in haloalkaliphilic archaea and will help to optimize the production of this extremozyme for biotechnological applications such as protease-catalysed peptide synthesis.     

Extracellular protease from the antarctic yeast Candida humicola.

The psychrotrophic, dimorphic yeast Candida humicola, isolated from Antarctic soil, secretes an acidic protease into the medium. The secretion of this protease by C. humicola was found to be dependent on the composition of the medium. In YPD or yeast nitrogen base medium containing either amino acids or ammonium sulfate as the nitrogen source, the activity of the protease in the medium was low (basal level). However, when yeast nitrogen base medium was depleted of amino acids or ammonium sulfate and supplemented with proteins, the activity of the enzyme increased. The secretion of the enzyme was greater during exponential growth at low temperatures than during growth at higher temperatures. The purified protease had a molecular mass of 36,000 Da and was inhibited by pepstatin, iodoacetamide, and sodium dodecyl sulfate. Despite the prevalent cold temperatures in Antarctica, this extracellular protease of the psychrotrophic yeast C. humicola was active at temperatures ranging from 0 to 45 degrees C, with an optimum activity at 37 degrees C.     

Extracellular protease from the antarctic yeast Candida humicola.

The psychrotrophic, dimorphic yeast Candida humicola, isolated from Antarctic soil, secretes an acidic protease into the medium. The secretion of this protease by C. humicola was found to be dependent on the composition of the medium. In YPD or yeast nitrogen base medium containing either amino acids or ammonium sulfate as the nitrogen source, the activity of the protease in the medium was low (basal level). However, when yeast nitrogen base medium was depleted of amino acids or ammonium sulfate and supplemented with proteins, the activity of the enzyme increased. The secretion of the enzyme was greater during exponential growth at low temperatures than during growth at higher temperatures. The purified protease had a molecular mass of 36,000 Da and was inhibited by pepstatin, iodoacetamide, and sodium dodecyl sulfate. Despite the prevalent cold temperatures in Antarctica, this extracellular protease of the psychrotrophic yeast C. humicola was active at temperatures ranging from 0 to 45 degrees C, with an optimum activity at 37 degrees C.     

Carbon source impact on Yarrowia lipolytica KKP 379 lipase production

The production of lipases by microorganisms is strongly influenced by the culture conditions. The optimum culture conditions for enzyme production are strain- and species-dependent. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of the carbon source used in the culture medium on the profile of lipases produced by Yarrowia lipolytica KKP 379. We observed a different pattern of extracellular and cell-bound lipase production, which was the highest in the early exponential phase. The extracellular lipase activity increased in the late exponential phase due to the lower accumulation of lipase molecules in cell walls. The best carbon source for extracellular lipase production by Y. lipolytica KKP 379 was olive oil. Glucose, dodecane and olive oil had a positive effect on biomass yield. Dodecane and/or glycerol utilization in microbiological lipase production was possible, but this process could not proceed without the addition of some activators such as olive oil in the cultivation medium.     

Production and secretion of recombinant Leuconostoc mesenteroides dextransucrase DsrS in Bacillus megaterium

Leuconostoc mesenteroides dextransucrase DsrS was recombinantly produced in Bacillus megaterium and exported into the growth medium. For this purpose a plasmid-based xylose-inducible gene expression system was optimized via introduction of a multiple cloning site and an encoded optimal B. megaterium ribosome binding site. A cre mediating glucose-dependent catabolite repression was removed. Recombinant DsrS was found in the cytoplasm and exported via its native leader sequence into the growth medium. Elimination of the extracellular protease NprM increased extracellular DsrS concentrations by a factor of 4 and stabilized the recombinant protein for up to 12 h. Cultivation in a semi-defined medium resulted in a further doubling of extracellular DsrS concentration up to an activity of 65 Units/L. To develop an industrial process a high cell density cultivation of B. megaterium was established yielding cell dry weights of up to 80 g/L. After induction of dsrS expression high specific (362 Units/g) and volumetric (28,600 Units/L) activities of dextran free DsrS were measured. However, using high cell density cultivation, most DsrS was found cell-associated indicating current limitations of the production process. A protease accessibility assay identified the major limitation of DsrS production at the level of protein folding. Intracellular misfolding of DsrS hampered DsrS export via the SEC pathway at high cell densities. The subsequent use of a semi-defined mineral medium and the induction of DsrS production at lower cell densities increased protein export efficiency remarkably, but also led to extracellular DsrS aggregation. Further optimization strategies for the production of recombinant DsrS in B. megaterium are discussed.     

Extracellular protease of Natrialba magadii: purification and biochemical characterization

A serine protease secreted by the haloalkaliphilic archaeon Natrialba magadii at the end of the exponential growth phase was isolated. This enzyme was purified 83 fold with a total yield of 25% by ethanol precipitation, affinity chromatography, and gel filtration. The native molecular mass of the enzyme determined by gel filtration was 45 kDa. Na. magadii extracellular protease was dependent on high salt concentrations for activity and stability, and it had an optimum temperature of 60°C in the presence of 1.5 M NaCl. The enzyme was stable and had a broad pH profile (6–12) with an optimum pH of 8–10 for azocasein hydrolysis. The protease was strongly inhibited by diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP), phenylmethyl sulfonylfluoride (PMSF), and chymostatin, indicating that it is a serine protease. It was sensitive to denaturing agents such as SDS, urea, and guanidine HCl and activated by thiol-containing reducing agents such as dithiotreitol (DTT) and 2-mercaptoethanol. This protease degraded casein and gelatin and showed substrate specificity for synthetic peptides containing Phe, Tyr, and Leu at the carboxyl terminus, showing that it has chymotrypsin-like activity. Na. magadii protease presented no cross-reactivity with polyclonal antibodies raised against the extracellular protease of Natronococcus occultus, suggesting that although these proteases share several biochemical traits, they might be antigenically unrelated. Received: October 1, 1999 / Accepted: February 1, 2000     

Production and Purification of the Metalloprotease of Bacillus polymyxa

The nutritional and environmental factors relating to the production of an extracellular protease by Bacillus polymyxa were investigated. The enzyme was produced in all media that supported growth of the microorganism, irrespective of the carbon source used. Arabinose and hydrolyzed starch, however, gave highest yields. The nature of the peptone had a significant effect on the level of protease produced. Calcium and manganous ions exerted a beneficial effect on protease production. Highest enzyme levels were obtained when the initial pH of the medium was within the range 5.9 to 7.0. When the pH of the medium was not controlled during the fermentation, the accumulation of the enzyme paralleled the growth of the microorganism and reached a maximum towards the end of the exponential phase. With a fixed pH of 6.8, the level of protease was only one-fifteenth of that obtained when the culture was allowed to maintain its own pH. In addition, accumulation of the protease reached a maximum somewhat earlier, i.e., in the mid-log phase of growth. A 70-fold increase in the specific activity of the protease was obtained by ammonium sulfate and acetone fractionation followed by gel filtration on Sephadex G-100. The purified protease behaved as a homogenous entity when eluted by a sodium chloride gradient from CM-cellulose at pH 6.9. An overall enzyme recovery of 60% was obtained.     

Effect of organic solvents on the activity and stability of an extracellular protease secreted by the haloalkaliphilic archaeon <Emphasis Type="Italic">Natrialba magadii</Emphasis>

The effect of various organic solvents on the activity and stability of an extracellular protease produced by the haloalkaliphilic archaeon Natrialba magadii was tested. This protease was active and stable in aqueous-organic solvent mixtures containing 1.5 M NaCl and glycerol, dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), N,N-dimethyl formamide, propylenglycol, and dioxane. Among the solvents tested, DMSO, propylenglycol, and glycerol were effective in preserving enzyme stability in suboptimal NaCl concentrations. The stabilizing effect of DMSO on this haloalkaliphilic protease was more efficient at pH 8 than at pH 10, suggesting that DMSO may not substitute for salt to allow halophilic proteins to withstand the effect of high pH values. These results show that Nab. magadii extracellular protease is a solvent tolerant enzyme and suggest a potential application of this haloalkaliphilic protease in aqueous-organic solvent biocatalysis.     

Screening and isolation of an organic solvent-tolerant bacterium for high-yield production of organic solvent-stable protease

Forty-three strains were screened from crude oil-contaminated samples by toluene and cyclohexane enrichment in medium. Ten of these strains demonstrated high protease activity on skim-milk agar. Among them, the PT121 isolate, identified as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, was selected based on its extracellular protease stability in the presence of hydrophilic organic solvents. The crude protease also retained most of its activity up to at least 14 days in the presence of various organic solvents at 50% concentration, and the protease activity in production medium was 10,876U/ml after 72h incubation. This protease showed high activity as a catalyst for aspartame precursor Cbz-Asp-Phe-NH2 synthesis in the presence of 50% dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO).     

Stringent response and initiation of secondary metabolism in Streptomyces clavuligerus

Cephalosporin biosynthetic activity and extracellular protease production increased during growth of Streptomyces clavuligerus in defined medium, while the level of guanosine 5'-diphosphate 3'-diphosphate (ppGpp) remained very low and stable. Cephalosporin biosynthesis (measured in resting cell systems) was initiated during early exponential growth in complex media, without appreciable change in the small ppGpp pool. Nutritional shift-down induced by withdrawal of Casamino acids caused a transient increase in ppGpp and a reduction of RNA accumulation. The increase in ppGpp was small in very young cultures, but increased as the culture aged. Twenty-seven spontaneous thiostrepton-resistant mutants were isolated and partially characterized. Most of them had a reduced ppGpp-forming ability and gave normal titres of cephalosporin. However, in complex medium, some mutants did not produce cephalosporins or extracellular protease, whereas others overproduced cephalosporins. The results indicate that, in S. clavuligerus, there is no obligatory relationship between the initiation of secondary metabolism and the stringent response.     

球形芽孢杆菌C_3—41菌株胞外蛋白酶特性

球形芽孢杆菌能够合成具杀蚊活性的蛋白晶体,该晶体在蚊中肠碱性条件下降解产生毒性,尽管球形芽孢杆菌蛋白酶与杀蚊毒素的降解无关,但它在球形芽孢杆菌杀蚊制剂的产生中有重要意义。同时球形芽孢杆菌产生的碱性蛋白酶具有潜在的医疗价值。 我们以本实验室分离的高效杀蚊菌C_3—41菌株为材料,研究了球形芽孢杆菌蛋白酶的产生特性及其理化性质,在国内尚属首次报道。     

Regulation of extracellular alkaline protease activity by histidine in a collagenolytic Vibrio alginolyticus strain

Vibrio alginolyticus synthesized an inducible extracellular collagenase in a peptone medium during the stationary growth phase. These cultures also possessed extracellular alkaline serine protease activity. The alkaline protease activity did not require a specific inducer and it was produced in tryptone or minimal media. The collagenase was not produced in either the tryptone or minimal media. The alkaline protease activity was sensitive to catabolite repression by a number of carbon sources, including glucose, and by amino acids and ammonium ions. Cyclic AMP, dibutyryl cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP did not relieve catabolite repression. Histidine and urocanic acid stimulated the production of alkaline protease activity in tryptone and minimal media. Other compounds associated with the histidine utilization (hut) pathway did not increase alkaline protease activity. Histidine reversed the repression of alkaline protease activity by glucose of (NH4)2SO4 in minimal medium. Histidine and the compounds associated with the hut pathway inhibited collagenase production.     

Enhancement of linear gramicidin expression from Bacillus brevis ATCC 8185 by casein peptide

Bacillus brevis (Brevibacillus parabrevis) ATCC 8185 synthesizes two kinds of antibiotic peptides, cyclopeptide tyrocidine and linear gramicidin. The production of linear gramicidin can be induced by the standard method (using a skim milk medium for pre-culture and beef broth for the main culture) employed for the induction of tyrocidine. In this study, we tried to determine the optimal growth medium for B. brevis ATCC 8185 for synthesizing linear gramicidin. The yield of linear gramicidin produced by the standard method was 3.11 microg/ml. When beef broth was used both as the pre-medium and the main medium, the yield of the antibiotic was only 0.59 microg/ml. To confirm the influence of skim milk, the strain was grown in a 1% skim milk medium. As a result, the amount of linear gramicidin produced reached 20.3 microg/ml. These findings show the importance of skim milk in the production of linear gramicidin. In the skim milk medium, the cells produced an extracellular protease 2 h before the linear gramicidin was expressed. The 1% skim milk medium pretreated by this protease did not allow the induction of linear gramicidin into the cells, and protease activity was not detected in the supernatant of the culture. When the cells were cultivated in a 1% egg albumin medium, protease activity from the supernatant of the culture was detected, but production of linear gramicidin was not observed. Therefore, a 1% casein medium was used for production of linear gramicidin. As a result, the yield of linear gramicidin produced in the medium reached 6.69 microg/ml. We concluded that a digested product of the extracellular protease from casein enhances linear gramicidin production.     

Production and partial characterization of dehairing protease from Bacillus cereus MCM B-326

Bacillus cereus MCM B-326, isolated from buffalo hide, produced an extracellular protease. Maximum protease production occurred (126.87+/-1.32 U ml(-1)) in starch soybean meal medium of pH 9.0, at 30 degrees C, under shake culture condition, with 2.8 x 10(8) cells ml(-1) as initial inoculum density, at 36 h. Ammonium sulphate precipitate of the enzyme was stable over a temperature range of 25-65 degrees C and pH 6-12, with maximum activity at 55 degrees C and pH 9.0. The enzyme required Ca(2+) ions for its production but not for activity and/or stability. The partially purified enzyme exhibited multiple proteases of molecular weight 45 kDa and 36 kDa. The enzyme could be effectively used to remove hair from buffalo hide indicating its potential in leather processing industry.     

New spatially explicit method for detecting extracellular protease activity in biofilms

A novel method of detecting extracellular protease activity at biofilm-substratum interfaces was developed. This method utilizes fluorescent molecules bound to cellulose substrata with a lectin. Extracellular proteases degrade the lectin and release the fluorochrome into solution. This new technique and a standard dissolved-substrate assay detected similar responses of biofilm extracellular protease activity to experimental manipulation of N supply. Combination of this technique with confocal scanning laser microscopy allowed direct visualization of microspatial patterns of bacterial distribution and extracellular protease activity at the biofilm-substratum interface.     

New Spatially Explicit Method for Detecting Extracellular Protease Activity in Biofilms

A novel method of detecting extracellular protease activity at biofilm-substratum interfaces was developed. This method utilizes fluorescent molecules bound to cellulose substrata with a lectin. Extracellular proteases degrade the lectin and release the fluorochrome into solution. This new technique and a standard dissolved-substrate assay detected similar responses of biofilm extracellular protease activity to experimental manipulation of N supply. Combination of this technique with confocal scanning laser microscopy allowed direct visualization of microspatial patterns of bacterial distribution and extracellular protease activity at the biofilm-substratum interface.