Balancing economic costs and ecological outcomes of passive and active restoration in agricultural landscapes: the case of Brazil

Forest restoration requires strategies such as passive restoration to balance financial investments and ecological outcomes. However, the ecological outcomes of passive restoration are traditionally regarded as uncertain. We evaluated technical and legal strategies for balancing economic costs and ecological outcomes of passive versus active restoration in agricultural landscapes. We focused in the case of Brazil, where we assessed the factors driving the proportion of land allocated to passive and active restoration in 42 programs covering 698,398 hectares of farms in the Atlantic Forest, Atlantic Forest/cerrado ecotone and Amazon; the ecological outcomes of passive and active restoration in 2955 monitoring plots placed in six restoration programs; and the legal framework developed by some Brazilian states to balance the different restoration approaches and comply with legal commitments. Active restoration had the highest proportion of land allocated to it (78.4%), followed by passive (14.2%) and mixed restoration (7.4%). Passive restoration was higher in the Amazon, in silviculture, and when remaining forest cover was over 50 percent. Overall, both restoration approaches showed high levels of variation in the ecological outcomes; nevertheless, passively restored areas had a smaller percentage canopy cover, lower species density, and less shrubs and trees (dbh > 5 cm). The studied legal frameworks considered land abandonment for up to 4 years before deciding on a restoration approach, to favor the use of passive restoration. A better understanding of the biophysical and socioeconomic features of areas targeted for restoration is needed to take a better advantage of their natural regeneration potential.     

A Framework to Optimize Biodiversity Restoration Efforts Based on Habitat Amount and Landscape Connectivity

The effectiveness of ecological restoration actions toward biodiversity conservation depends on both local and landscape constraints. Extensive information on local constraints is already available, but few studies consider the landscape context when planning restoration actions. We propose a multiscale framework based on the landscape attributes of habitat amount and connectivity to infer landscape resilience and to set priority areas for restoration. Landscapes with intermediate habitat amount and where connectivity remains sufficiently high to favor recolonization were considered to be intermediately resilient, with high possibilities of restoration effectiveness and thus were designated as priority areas for restoration actions. The proposed method consists of three steps: (1) quantifying habitat amount and connectivity; (2) using landscape ecology theory to identify intermediate resilience landscapes based on habitat amount, percolation theory, and landscape connectivity; and (3) ranking landscapes according to their importance as corridors or bottlenecks for biological flows on a broader scale, based on a graph theory approach. We present a case study for the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (approximately 150 million hectares) in order to demonstrate the proposed method. For the Atlantic Forest, landscapes that present high restoration effectiveness represent only 10% of the region, but contain approximately 15 million hectares that could be targeted for restoration actions (an area similar to today's remaining forest extent). The proposed method represents a practical way to both plan restoration actions and optimize biodiversity conservation efforts by focusing on landscapes that would result in greater conservation benefits .     

Assessment of the nursery species pool for restoring landscapes in southeastern Brazil

Brazil has committed to fulfilling international restoration goals and to enforcing environmental legislation that will require private landowners to undertake ecological restoration of 21 million hectares of degraded and deforested landscapes. To support a broad range of restoration practices, a well‐established supply chain capable of representing regional plant diversity is essential. This study investigated the restoration species pool in native plant nurseries in São Paulo state, located in southeastern Brazil, and evaluated their geographic distribution, similarity of their plant stocks, and the proportion of species represented from regional floras. Despite a lack of technical assistance and a significant presence of nonnative species (126 species, average 7.5 species/nursery), we found an impressive native species richness in plant nurseries (561 species, average 86.4 species/nursery) from both the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado domains, representing 38–44% of regional floras. There was a huge bias toward tree and shrub species (96.6%) and an absence or underrepresentation of other growth forms, as well as of savanna specialists, animal‐dispersed, and threatened species. The dissimilarity of species observed among the different nurseries surveyed highlights their role in representing regional diversity, which reflects their regional seed collection practices. Effective assistance and training are essential to address issues related to misidentification of species, underrepresentation of most functional plant groups, and the presence of nonnative species, as well as to support the supply chain, which is currently undergoing a market downturn.     

Fruit‐feeding Butterfly Communities are Influenced by Restoration Age in Tropical Forests

Currently, a large‐scale restoration project aims to restore around 15 million hectares of Atlantic Forest in Brazil. This will increase forest cover and connectivity among remnant sites as well as restore environmental services. Currently, studies on recovery of fauna in restored areas of the Atlantic Forest are practically nonexistent. To address this knowledge vacuum, our study compares diversity patterns of fruit‐feeding butterflies in three forest areas with different restoration ages (11, 22, and 54 years), and uses a native forest area as reference. Results showed butterfly communities in maturing restored areas becoming more similar to the ones found in the native forest, with an increase in the proportional abundance of forest species, and a decrease of edge and grassland species. Moreover, we found a higher diversity among sites at the intermediate restoration age, with a community composed of both grassland and forest species. Butterfly species composition differed significantly among sites, showing interesting patterns of potential species replacement over time. Our results indicate that, although restored sites were located in a fragmented landscape, they provide suitable habitats for recolonization by fruit‐feeding butterfly assemblages. Hence, restored areas can be considered important habitat for forest animal species, increasing local biodiversity and, possibly, restoring some of the ecosystem services provided by them.     

Cultural Ecosystem Services and Popular Perceptions of the Benefits of an Ecological Restoration Project in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

It is essential to understand how ecological restoration (ER) improves human well‐being in order to justify more investments and upscaling in this emergent field of action. As part of a 22‐year‐old, 80 ha ER project being carried out around a water reservoir that supplies drinking water to the city of Iracemápolis (population 19,700), in the mega‐diversity Atlantic Forest biome of Brazil, we assessed local community perceptions of the tangible and intangible benefits expected to arise from this project. A detailed questionnaire was completed for 292 members of the local community to gauge perceptions of benefits arising from various cultural and provisioning ecosystem services (ESs; especially safe and clean drinking water) provided by the 80 ha forest restoration project. A striking 94% of those interviewed wanted more ER projects in their community. Participants reported an appreciation for cultural ESs such as esthetic landscape improvement, tourism, recreation, as well as various religious, spiritual, and educational services. In addition, 87% of interviewees believed that the restoration project improved the quality of their drinking water, and 63% said they would agree to an increase in water tariffs if the proceeds were to be invested in more forest restoration. Judging from this study, investigation and subsequent communication of popular perceptions of the various benefits of ER projects could promote consensus‐building and support for projects among stakeholders, and inform governmental and societal investments in restoration .     

A hot-point within a hot-spot: a high diversity site in Brazil’s Atlantic Forest

The Brazilian Atlantic Forest is considered one of the world’s most important sites for biodiversity conservation, and within this biome there are regions with differing levels of species richness, species composition, and endemism. The present study was undertaken in southern Bahia, Brazil, and employed a standardized sampling method to compare the density of arboreal species in this region with other areas throughout the world known for their high tree species density. A total of 144 tree species with DBH > 4.8 cm were sampled within a 0.1 ha plot of old-growth forest (OGF), and these data were then compared with 22 other world sites that had been sampled using the same methodology and likewise demonstrated high densities of arboreal species. Only one site of ombrophilous forest in Colombia demonstrated a higher tree species density (148 spp. in 0.1 ha) than was encountered in southern Bahia. Other areas of Brazil, including other Atlantic Forest sites, showed significantly inferior tree species densities. These results indicate that this region of southern Bahia has one of the greatest numbers of tree species in Brazil and in the world. These results, associated with the high levels of endemism there, indicate the high biological importance of this region. It is therefore fundamental that efforts aimed at halting the degradation of these forests be linked to programs that will increase our knowledge of the species found there as well as the ecological and evolutionary processes that originated these unique forests.     

Limited effectiveness of artificial bird perches for the establishment of seedlings and the restoration of Brazil’s Atlantic Forest

Brazil’s Atlantic Forest biome is severely degraded and fragmented throughout its range. Developing effective techniques to restore pasture and agriculture back to native vegetation is therefore a priority for legal and conservation purposes. In this study, we evaluate the ability of artificial bird perches to enhance the arrival of new seeds and seedling establishment in a degraded, semi-deciduous seasonal portion of the Atlantic Forest in southern Brazil. Specifically, we assess the influence of previous land use and habitat types on the abundance, species richness and ecological traits of bird-dispersed seeds, as well as on seedling establishment. Eight sampling sites were established, each containing one unit with seed traps and restoration plots under artificial perches and one similar unit without the perches. These sites were located in pasture and agriculture, distributed between riparian and sub-montane areas. Monthly sampling was conducted over two years between December 2005 and November 2007, resulting in the evaluation of 25,755 seeds and 56 endozoochoric seed species. The most abundant species were the pioneers Cecropia pachystachya Trécul and Solanum americanum Mill. Experimental units with perches received significantly more seeds than control units. Moreover, seed arrival was higher in sub-montane areas and on former pasture sites. Species richness followed a similar pattern of higher seed arrival, but there was no effect of vegetation type. Ecological characteristics of seeds were associated with land use type: former pastures received more tree seeds and pioneer species than expected by chance. Seedling establishment was very low in all treatments, with only eight seedlings established in perch plots by the end of the experiment. We conclude that despite artificial perches significantly increasing the arrival of endozoochoric seeds onto degraded lands, seedling establishment is drastically limited in these areas, compromising the efficacy of this technique for restoration purposes.     

Look down—there is a gap—the need to include soil data in Atlantic Forest restoration

Consideration of soil quality indicators is fundamental for understanding and managing ecosystems. Despite the evidence regarding the importance of soil for provision of local and global ecosystem services, such as water regulation and carbon sequestration, soil remains an under‐investigated and undermined aspect of the environment. Here we evaluate to what extent soil indicators are taken into account in restoration. We focused on the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, a highly fragmented biome and a global biodiversity hotspot. We conducted a systematic literature review and we showed that the majority (59%) of the studies on restoration did not consider any soil indicator. Studies that demonstrated the importance of soil indicators most commonly reported soil pH (71%, n = 44), followed by potassium content (66%, n = 41) and phosphorus (64.5%, n = 40), while the least reported indicator was water retention (6.5%, n = 4). Only 40% of the retrieved studies included information about reference sites or project baseline information. We complement our literature review with a case study on restoration in two areas of the Atlantic Forest. We found a relation between soil indicators such as soil organic matter, nitrogen, sodium and sand content, and aboveground indicators, confirming a necessity to include soil screening in restoration. Moreover, we found that prior to restoration none of these soil indicators were analyzed. This study highlights the gap that exists in soil data in restoration in studies on the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. We urge scientists and practitioners to include basic soil analysis to maximize the successful outcomes of restoration.     

The restoration of tropical seed dispersal networks

Human activities have led to the loss of habitats and biodiversity in the Atlantic Rain Forest in Brazil. Ecological restoration aims to rebuild this biome and should include not only the reinstatement of species but also the reestablishment of complex ecological interactions and the ecological functions that they provide. One such function is seed dispersal, which is provided by the interactions between animal frugivores and plants. We studied seed dispersal networks in 3 different tropical forest sites restored 15, 25, and 57 years ago; temporal scales rarely observed in restoration studies. We investigated changes in network structure (nestedness, modularity, and network specialization) in these communities over restoration time. Although network size and the number of interactions increased with time since restoration, the networks were composed of generalist birds, and the large frugivores remained absent. Contrary to our expectations though, species richness was highest in the 25‐year‐old site, maybe due to the higher number of species used in the planting. Nestedness values were low in all 3 networks, but the highest nestedness was observed in the intermediate‐aged site. However, the oldest network was significantly modular and showed higher complementary specialization. These results suggest that 57 years after restoration, the complexity of mutualistic interactions in seed dispersal networks has increased, this enhancing ecosystem function in the Atlantic forest.     

Can current native tree seedling production and infrastructure meet an increasing forest restoration demand in Brazil?

Recent global commitments have placed forest and landscape restoration at the forefront of countries' efforts to recover ecosystem services, conserve biodiversity, and mitigate the effects of climate change. However, it needs to be asked if current native tree seedling supply meets an increase in demand for forest restoration? This study assessed the current configuration, distribution, and production capacity of forest nurseries producing native trees in Brazil. Brazil provides an interesting example of how global agreements aligned with national policies can lead to the proliferation of native seedling nurseries, and the challenges faced to restore species‐rich native forest ecosystems. We found that the nurseries in the Atlantic Forest region can still meet an increase in demand—both in terms of seedling quantity and diversity—because most of their production capacity is not currently used. However, not all Brazilian biomes have sufficient nurseries to meet restoration demands, thus there is a risk of using native species from a few biogeographical regions in a much spatially wider and ecologically diverse area. In addition, lack of seed supply and qualified labor can hamper the growth of the market. Barriers to seed supply may also lead to low levels of genetic variability and floristic representation in the populations and ecosystems to be restored. We conclude that restoration of high‐diversity forest ecosystems requires policies and supportive programs, with emphasis on private nurseries, to guarantee adequate supply of native tree seedlings and provide the necessary incentives to develop the emergent economy of forest restoration.     

Natural regeneration and biodiversity: a global meta‐analysis and implications for spatial planning

Natural regeneration offers a cheaper alternative to active reforestation and has the potential to become the predominant way of restoring degraded tropical landscapes at large‐scale. We conducted a meta‐analysis for tropical regions and quantified the relationships between both ecological and socioeconomic factors and biodiversity responses in naturally regenerating areas. Biogeographic realms, past disturbance, and the human development index (HDI) were used as explanatory variables for biodiversity responses. In addition, we present a case study of large‐scale natural regeneration in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest and identify areas where different forms of restoration would be most suitable. Using our dataset for tropical regions, we showed that natural regeneration was predominantly reported within: the Neotropical realm; areas that were intensively disturbed; and countries with medium HDI. We also found that biodiversity in regenerating forests was more similar to the values found in old growth forests in: countries with either low, high, or very high HDI; less biodiverse realms; and areas of less intensive past disturbance. Our case study from Brazil showed that the level of forest gain resulting from environmental legislation, in particular the Brazilian Forest Code, has been reduced, but remains substantial. Complementary market incentives and financial mechanisms to promote large‐scale natural regeneration in human‐modified agricultural landscapes are also needed. Our analysis provides insights into the factors that promote or limit the recovery of biodiversity in naturally regenerating areas, and aids to identify areas with higher potential for natural regeneration.     

Relict populations of Araucaria angustifolia will be isolated,poorly protected,and unconnected under climate and land-use change in Brazil

Biodiversity and Conservation - One of Brazil’s most threatened tropical biome is the Atlantic Forest. This biome has distinct forest formations, as the Araucaria Mixed Forest, a sub-tropical...     

Efficiency of protected areas in Amazon and Atlantic Forest conservation: A spatio-temporal view

The Amazon and Atlantic Forest are considered the world's most biodiverse biomes. Human and climate change impacts are the principal drivers of species loss in both biomes, more severely in the Atlantic Forest. In response to species loss, the main conservation action is the creation of protected areas (PAs). Current knowledge and research on the PA network's conservation efficiency is scarce, and existing studies have mainly considered a past temporal view. In this study, we tested the efficiency of the current PA network to maintain climatically stable areas (CSAs) across the Amazon and Atlantic Forest. To this, we used an ecological niche modeling approach to biome and paleoclimatic simulations. We propose three categories of conservation priority areas for both biomes, considering CSAs, PAs and intact forest remnants. The biomes vary in their respective PA networks' protection efficiency. Regarding protect CSAs, the Amazon PA network is four times more efficient than the Atlantic Forest PA network. New conservation efforts in these two forest biomes require different approaches. We discussed the conservation actions that should be taken in each biome to increase the efficiency of the PA network, considering both the creation and expansion of PAs as well as restoration programs.     

Genetic diversity of reintroduced tree populations in restoration plantations of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

Long‐term ecological success of large‐scale restoration programs planned for the next decades will rely on genetic diversity (GD) of reintroduced or colonizing species, a limiting factor in highly fragmented landscapes. In small and isolated natural remnants or restoration areas, substantial reduction in population's size or connectivity may lead to local extinctions due to the accumulation of deleterious recessive alleles and ongoing reduction of fecundity, plant vigor, recruitment success, and adaptive potential. Despite the paramount role of GD for species persistence, its levels in restoration programs are poorly known. We assessed the GD of four model tree species (different succession stages, dispersal, and pollination syndromes) from the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, comparing two high‐diversity restoration plantations, one forest fragment and one conserved remnant. Contrary to the expectation that the plantation strategies adopted in the restoration programs could result in genetic composition homogenization, we found that restoration areas established heterogeneous genetic groups with similar levels of neutral GD and inbreeding to those observed in natural forest remnants. This pattern was consistent across the four functionally different tree species, despite some species idiosyncrasies. For instance, we observed lower allelic richness in early successional species in restoration sites, suggesting that some species may be more prone to reintroduction with lower GD. Thus, we advocate the use of high GD levels in restoration to support biodiversity conservation in human‐modified landscapes, thus reinforcing the role of ecological restoration for recovering the diversity of genes—the basic constituent of biodiversity.     

Ecological restoration, carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation: The experience of the Society for Wildlife Research and Environmental Education (SPVS) in the Atlantic Rain Forest of Southern Brazil

Since 1999, SPVS has been involved in three projects that combine two fundamental goals over the course of 40 years: the conservation of one of Brazil's most important remnants of Atlantic Forest and the implementation of projects for carbon sequestration. In addition, there is an interest in replicating these projects in order to restore other degraded areas, protect the Brazilian biomes, and help to diminish deforestation and forest fire, therefore reducing carbon emissions. The acquisition of 19,000 ha of degraded areas of high biological importance in southern Brazil was the first step towards the implementation of the projects. These areas are owned by SPVS, a Brazilian NGO, and are being restored, conserved and transformed into Private Natural Reserves, in partnership with the NGO – The Nature Conservancy, and financed by the companies – American Electric Power, General Motors and Chevron Texaco. The process of forest restoration involves several stages: soil studies, surveying the region's native plants, planning for restoration by means of a Geographical Information System, production of seedlings, application of different techniques for planting (such as manual or mechanised planting with seedlings and stakes), and biomass and biodiversity monitoring. To guarantee the survival of the seedlings on the planted areas, during the first three years, there is a continuous and systematic maintenance programme including weeding of undergrowth, crowing and organic fertilisation. The three projects already planted around 500,000 seedlings of native species until September 2004, and aim to plant a further 300,000 until 2008.     

Fragmentation Impairs the Microclimate Buffering Effect of Tropical Forests

Background

Tropical forest species are among the most sensitive to changing climatic conditions, and the forest they inhabit helps to buffer their microclimate from the variable climatic conditions outside the forest. However, habitat fragmentation and edge effects exposes vegetation to outside microclimatic conditions, thereby reducing the ability of the forest to buffer climatic variation. In this paper, we ask what proportion of forest in a fragmented ecosystem is impacted by altered microclimate conditions driven by edge effects, and extrapolate these results to the whole Atlantic Forest biome, one of the most disturbed biodiversity hotspots. To address these questions, we collected above and below ground temperature for a full year using temperature sensors placed in forest fragments of different sizes, and at different distances from the forest edge.

Principal Findings

In the Atlantic forests of Brazil, we found that the buffering effect of forests reduced maximum outside temperatures by one third or more at ground level within a forest, with the buffering effect being stronger below-ground than one metre above-ground. The temperature buffering effect of forests was, however, reduced near forest edges with the edge effect extending up to 20 m inside the forest. The heavily fragmented nature of the Brazilian Atlantic forest means that 12% of the remaining biome experiences altered microclimate conditions.

Conclusions

Our results add further information about the extent of edge effects in the Atlantic Forest, and we suggest that maintaining a low perimeter-to-area ratio may be a judicious method for minimizing the amount of forest area that experiences altered microclimatic conditions in this ecosystem.     

Compliance to Brazil's Forest Code will not protect biodiversity and ecosystem services

In striking contrast to heartening events in the adjacent Amazon, Brazil's Cerrado biome has seen continued deforestation over the past decade. Though approved in 2012, no study evaluated the impacts of new Brazilian Forest Code (FC) revision on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Here, we report the first assessment of the likely loss and gain in biodiversity and ecosystem services expected if the FC is properly enforced across 200 million hectares of the Cerrado. We also discuss the challenges associated to compliance with the law and present opportunities for conservation. Establishing restoration programmes in private properties with currently less native vegetation than required by the FC could create habitat for 25% more threatened species than now found in these places and could also increase water security and carbon stock in 56.6 MtC. More important, trading environmental reserve quotas coupled with the strategic expansion of protected areas on private and public land could definitely rescue the Cerrado from the brink.     

Richness and composition of Calliphoridae in an Atlantic Forest fragment: implication for the use of dipteran species as bioindicators

Studies measuring the damage in degraded environments have increased, and it is necessary to obtain reliable biological and ecological indicators for the recovery of such degraded environments and subsequent preservation. This study aimed to conduct a survey of local insects and evaluate their utility in monitoring forest restoration in a degraded area in the Atlantic Forest biome in Ribeirao Grande, State of São Paulo, Brazil. Collections with Shuey traps were conducted from 2006 to 2011 in four distinct forest fragments characterized by environmental impacts, human actions, and phytophysiognomic profiles: Forest (FO), a preserved area with native plant species; “Capoeira” (CA), an area in the natural regeneration process; Planting (PL), an area reforested with native plants; and Pasture (PA), an area with only shrubs. A total of 2,456 specimens of Calliphoridae (Diptera) were collected. Mesembrinella bellardiana was the most abundant (n = 1,884) and dominant species in all environments sampled. The relative abundance of M. bellardiana in the most preserved environment (60.2 % FO, 24.4 % CA, 8.6 % PL, and 6.7 % PA) and other ecological parameters showed that it could be a bioindicator species, i.e., data on its presence or absence directly reflected the status of local preservation. Information on Neotropical dipterans associated with the forested environment is very scarce in the literature. To our knowledge, this is the first study describing the occurrence of Calliphora lopesi (Calliphoridae) in the State of São Paulo.     

退化森林生态系统恢复评价研究综述

森林退化是一个世界性的问题,对退化的森林进行恢复评价是合理地进行森林生态系统管理的基础。介绍了森林退化的概念,综述了退化森林生态系统恢复评价的一般程序,主要包括恢复目标的确定、参照系的选择、评价指标体系的构建及定量评价等几个方面。目前,大多数退化森林恢复评价主要包括物种多样性、植被结构和生态学过程3个方面。其中,物种多样性包括物种丰富度和多度等;植被结构包括植被盖度、乔木密度、高度、胸高断面积、生物量和凋落物结构等;生态学过程包括养分库、土壤有机质以及生物间的相互关系等。不同的研究者或管理者由于对恢复其生态系统服务功能的需求存在差异,评价退化生态系统恢复的角度也不一样。恢复评价可以从特殊种群到整个生态系统的不同层次进行。在深刻理解森林退化定义的基础上,建立现实的目标和正确地选择参照系是恢复评价的前提。     

Molecular and Morphological Evidence Reveals a New Species in the Phyllomedusa hypochondrialis Group (Hylidae,Phyllomedusinae) from the Atlantic Forest of the Highlands of Southern Brazil

The taxonomic status of a disjunctive population of Phyllomedusa from southern Brazil was diagnosed using molecular, chromosomal, and morphological approaches, which resulted in the recognition of a new species of the P. hypochondrialis group. Here, we describe P. rustica sp. n. from the Atlantic Forest biome, found in natural highland grassland formations on a plateau in the south of Brazil. Phylogenetic inferences placed P. rustica sp. n. in a subclade that includes P. rhodei + all the highland species of the clade. Chromosomal morphology is conservative, supporting the inference of homologies among the karyotypes of the species of this genus. Phyllomedusa rustica is apparently restricted to its type-locality, and we discuss the potential impact on the strategies applied to the conservation of the natural grassland formations found within the Brazilian Atlantic Forest biome in southern Brazil. We suggest that conservation strategies should be modified to guarantee the preservation of this species.