Light regulation on growth, development, and secondary metabolism of marine-derived filamentous fungi

Effects of different light conditions on development, growth, and secondary metabolism of three marine-derived filamentous fungi were investigated. Darkness irritated sexual development of Aspergillus glaucus HB1-19, while white, red, and blue lights improved its asexual behavior. The red and blue lights improved asexual stroma formation of Xylaria sp. (no. 2508), but the darkness and white light inhibited it. Differently, development of Halorosellinia sp. (no. 1403) turned out to be insensitive to any tested light irradiation. Upon the experimental data, no regularity was observed linking development with secondary metabolism. However, fungal growth showed inversely correlation with productions of major bioactive compounds (aspergiolide A, 1403C, and xyloketal B) from various strains. The results indicated that aspergiolide A biosynthesis favored blue light illumination, while 1403C and xyloketal B preferred red light irradiation. With the favorite light sensing conditions, productions of aspergiolide A, 1403C, and xyloketal B were enhanced by 32.9, 21.9, and 30.8 % compared with those in the dark, respectively. The phylogenetic analysis comparing the light-responding proteins of A. glaucus HB 1-19 with those in other systems indicated that A. glaucus HB 1-19 was closely related to Aspergillus spp. especially A. nidulans in spite of its role of marine-derived fungus. It indicated that marine fungi might conserve its light response system when adapting the marine environment. This work also offers useful information for process optimization involving light regulation on growth and metabolism for drug candidate production from light-sensitive marine fungi.     

Extracellular ß-galactosidase production during growth of filamentous fungi on polygalacturonic acid

The ß-galactosidase enzymes of Aspergillus oryzae and Scopulariopsis sp. are secreted during growth of the fungi on polygalacturonic acid, but not during growth on a wide range of other substrates, including lactose. The enzymes are thermotolerant with temperature optima in the range 55–65°C. The results indicate that fungal extracellular ß-galactosidases are involved in fungal growth on complex polysaccharides but not on lactose.     

Coordinated process of polarized growth in filamentous fungi

Filamentous fungi are extremely polarized organisms, exhibiting continuous growth at their hyphal tips. The hyphal form is related to their pathogenicity in animals and plants, and their high secretion ability for biotechnology. Polarized growth requires a sequential supply of proteins and lipids to the hyphal tip. This transport is managed by vesicle trafficking via the actin and microtubule cytoskeleton. Therefore, the arrangement of the cytoskeleton is a crucial step to establish and maintain the cell polarity. This review summarizes recent findings unraveling the mechanism of polarized growth with special emphasis on the role of actin and microtubule cytoskeleton and polarity marker proteins. Rapid insertions of membranes via highly active exocytosis at hyphal tips could quickly dilute the accumulated polarity marker proteins. Recent findings by a super-resolution microscopy indicate that filamentous fungal cells maintain their polarity at the tips by repeating transient assembly and disassembly of polarity sites.     

The growth of various filamentous fungi and yeasts on n-alkanes and ketones

Summary Ninety-five fungi, hydrocarbon isolates as well as those obtained from various type culture collections, were tested for their ability to grow on liquid mineral media containing n-alkanes as sole source of carbon and energy. Of the 29 filamentous fungi tested, 18 were capable of growing on n-alkanes, which represented 11 of the 14 genera tested. Of the 66 yeasts (16 genera) examined only 11 exhibited this ability, predominantly members of the genera Candida, Rhodotorula (2 strains) and Debaryomyces (1 species). Of the hydrocarbon utilizing filamentous fungi and yeasts examined, almost all were capable of growing on n-alkanes having a chain length of 10 carbon atoms or more. However, only a few of the filamentous fungi and none of the yeasts tested possessed the ability to grow on the short chain n-alkanes. Of the 8 hydrocarbon utilizing yeasts examined, only 5 were capable of growing on a few of the wide variety of ketones tested, particularly on 2-hexanone or 2-heptanone.Deceased, April 9, 1966.     

Modeling the exponential growth of filamentous fungi during batch cultivation

In certain conditions, filamentous fungi are observed to grow exponentially during batch submerged growth. It is shown for three cases, with simple mechanistic models, that an exponential growth assumption is reasonable. The basis of these models is the identification of a growth unit, and a mechanism for its doubling with a constant generation time. The importance of the variation of morphological properties within populations is demonstrated by the comparison of computer simulations of simplified models using average values and either experimental data or computer simulations of detailed stochastic models. Copyright 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Proteomics of filamentous fungi

Proteomic analysis, defined here as the global assessment of cellular proteins expressed in a particular biological state, is a powerful tool that can provide a systematic understanding of events at the molecular level. Proteomic studies of filamentous fungi have only recently begun to appear in the literature, despite the prevalence of these organisms in the biotechnology industry, and their importance as both human and plant pathogens. Here, we review recent publications that have used a proteomic approach to develop a better understanding of filamentous fungi, highlighting sample preparation methods and whole-cell cytoplasmic proteomics, as well as subproteomics of cell envelope, mitochondrial and secreted proteins.     

Morphology and productivity of filamentous fungi

Cultivation processes involving filamentous fungi have been optimised for decades to obtain high product yields. Several bulk chemicals like citric acid and penicillin are produced this way. A simple adaptation of cultivation parameters for new production processes is not possible though. Models explaining the correlation between process-dependent growth behaviour and productivity are therefore necessary to prevent long-lasting empiric test series. Yet, filamentous growth consists of a complex microscopic differentiation process from conidia to hyphae resulting in various macroscopically visible appearances. Early approaches to model this morphologic development are recapitulated in this review to explain current trends in this area of research. Tailoring morphology by adjusting process parameters is one side of the coin, but an ideal morphology has not even been found. This article reviews several reasons for this fact starting with nutrient supply in a fungal culture and presents recent advances in the investigation of fungal metabolism. It illustrates the challenge to unfold the relationship between morphology and productivity.     

The fitness of filamentous fungi

Fitness is a common currency in comparative biology. Without data on fitness, hypotheses about the adaptive significance of phenotypes or basic mechanisms of evolution, for example natural selection, remain speculative. Experiments with fungi can address questions specific to fungi or questions with a broader significance. Fungi can challenge the generality of fundamental evolutionary principles, yet there are no standard measures of fungal fitness. We argue that focusing on a single aspect of a complex life cycle, or a single measure of fitness (e.g. the number of asexual spores) is appropriate. Choosing which aspect of fitness to measure can be facilitated by an understanding of how fitness measures are correlated. Choices can also be based on the ecology of a species, for example whether a fungus is semelparous and reproduces once, or iteroparous and reproduces multiple times.     

Chitinolytic activity of filamentous fungi

The chitinolytic activity of nine species of filamentous fungi, classified with seven genera (specifically, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Paecilomyces, Sporotrichum, Beaueria, and Mucor), was studied. When cultured in liquid medium containing 1% crystalline chitin, all fungi produced extracellular chitosans with activity varying from 0.2 U/mg protein (Sporotrichum olivaceum, Mucor sp., etc.) to 4.0-4.2 U/mg protein (Trichoderma lignorum, Aspergillus niger).     

Population genetics of filamentous fungi

Population genetics aims to understand causes and consequences of the genetic structure of pupulations, i.e. distributions of genetic variants in space and time. Among the most important determinants of the genetic population structure is the genetic system itself, which is the collection of processes and mechanisms responsible for the transmission of genetic information.Filamentous fungi offer excellent opportunities for studying the effects of the genetic system on genetic population structure. Apart from their advantage as laboratory organisms, they exhibit a wide variety of genetic systems. In particular, their inherent capacity for anastomosis provides unique possibilities for investigating rates and consequences of horizontal gene transfer. Furthermore, the temporary confinement of the products of meiosis in a common structure (the ascus) enables the study of competitive and antagonistic interactions between the meiotic products. An intriguing example of the latter is the phenomenon of spore killing, resulting in distorted meiotic segregation.This paper concentrates on population level research of the occurrence of vegatative incompatibility inAspergillus andNeurospora species and to what extent this will inhibit horizontal transmission of genetic information, and on spore killing inPodospora anserina.     

Enhancement of antibiotic and secondary metabolite detection from filamentous fungi by growth on nutritional arrays

Aims: We asked to what extent does the application of the OSMAC (one strain, many compounds) approach lead to enhanced detection of antibiotics and secondary metabolites in fungi? Protocols for bacterial microfermentations were adapted to grow fungi in nutritional arrays. Methods and Results: Protocols for microfermentations of non‐sporulating fungi were validated using known antifungal‐producing fungi. Detection of antifungal activity was often medium dependent. The effects of medium arrays and numbers of strains on detection of antifungal signals were modelled by interpolation of rarefaction curves derived from matrices of positive and negative extracts. Increasing the number of fermentation media for any given strain increased the probability of detection of growth inhibition of Candida albicans. Increasing biodiversity increased detection of antifungal phenotypes, however, nutritional arrays could partly compensate for lost antibiotic phenotypes when biodiversity was limiting. Conclusions: Growth and extraction in microtiter plates can enable a discovery strategy emphasizing low‐cost medium arrays that can better exploit the metabolic potential of strains. Significance and Impact of the Study: Increasing fermentation parameters raise the probability of detecting bioactive metabolites from strains. The protocols can be used to pre‐select strains and their growth conditions for scale up that will most likely yield antibiotics and secondary metabolites.     

Genetic transformation of filamentous fungi

Many filamentous fungi of all taxa can now be subject to DNA-mediated transformation. Many dominant selectable markers are available and the range available is increasing as new genes are cloned. Transformation is especially valuable in cloning genes defined by mutations with selectable phenotypes and is allowing investigation of many problems in fungi with good genetic systems. Increasingly sophisticated techniques for inactivating genes, targetingin vitro generated mutations to specific loci, and altering gene expression and its regulation are being developed. These approaches are being used to investigate the wealth of basic and applied biological problems available in filamentous fungi.