Purification and Properties of Bovine Brain Dopamine β-Hydroxylase

Abstract: Dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH) was purified from bovine brain by a series of steps including extraction with 0.5% Triton X-100, ammonium sulfate fractionation, and serial chromatographies with Concanavalin A (Con A)-Sepharose, Biogel A-1.5 m, DEAE-Sephadex, and phenyl-Sepharose. The overall purification was approximately 4200-fold and the final specific activity was 147 nmol/min/mg protein. Bovine brain DBH was apparently a glycoprotein and interacted with immobilized Con A. Furthermore, the enLyme bound to phenyl-substituted agarose by hydrophobic interaction. An approximate molecular weight was estimated to be 400,000 by gel filtration; the protein eluted earlier than bovine adrenal DBH with a molecular weight estimated to be 290,000. The K_m values toward tyramine and ascorbate were 1.53 and 1.42 mM, respectively, the optimal pH was 5.0 in the presence of 20 mM tyramine as substrate. Immunological titration studies indicated that bovine brain and adrenal DBH had common antigenic sites. Our data showed a close similarity between the bovine brain and adrenal enzymes.     

Restoration of Norepinephrine and Reversal of Phenotypes in Mice Lacking Dopamine β-Hydroxylase

Abstract: Mice with a targeted disruption of the dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH) gene are unable to synthesize norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine. These mice have elevated levels of dopamine in most tissues, although the levels are only a fraction of those normally found for NE. It is noteworthy that NE can be restored to normal levels in many tissues after a single injection of the synthetic amino acid precursor of NE, l -threo-3,4-dihydroxyphenylserine (DOPS). In other tissues, NE can be restored to normal levels after multiple injections of DOPS, whereas in the midbrain and cerebellum, restoration of NE is limited to 25–30% of normal. NE levels typically peak ∼5 h after DOPS administration and are undetectable by 48 h. Epinephrine levels are more difficult to restore. The elevated levels of dopamine fall modestly after injection of DOPS. S (−)-Carbidopa, which does not cross the blood-brain barrier, inhibits aromatic l -amino acid decarboxylase and effectively prevents restoration of NE by DOPS in the periphery, while allowing restoration in the CNS. Ptosis and reductions in male fertility, hind-limb extension, postdecapitation convulsions, and uncoupling protein expression in dopamine β-hydroxylase-deficient mice are all reversed by DOPS injection.     

Mutagenesis of Rat Dopamine β-Hydroxylase: Examination in Cell-Free System

Abstract: Dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH; EC 1.14.17.1) exists as membrane-bound and soluble forms in neurosecretory vesicles. The features of DBH required for glycosylation and incorporation into membranes were studied in a cell-free system. Translation of full-length DBH with microsomal membranes generated two glycosylated products (GH and GL) depending on the magnesium concentration. Carboxyl-terminal, in contrast to amino-terminal, truncations gave translation products that were glycosylated by microsomal membranes. Site-directed mutants were generated with the second AUG codon and the region of a putative signal sequence cleavage site modified. Translation without membranes indicated that the second AUG is not used to initiate translation. The mutant with Glu⁴¹→ Leu⁴¹ and Ser⁴³→ Thr⁴³ yielded only the GH form with membranes, whereas mutation of Ser⁴³→ Ala⁴³ generated both GH and GL forms. Both glycosylated forms comigrated with the microsomal membranes on sucrose gradients. Endoglycosidase H digestion indicated that the differences between the GH and GL forms are not due to the sugar moiety. The results suggest a role for cleavage of a signal sequence in the formation of different forms of DBH. The possibility that these mutations change the secondary structure near the signal cleavage site, affecting processing, is discussed.     

Dopamine β-Hydroxylase and Other Glycoproteins from the Soluble Content and the Membranes of Adrenal Chromaffin Granules: Isolation and Carbohydrate Analysis

Abstract: Chromogranin A and two other proteins (A₁ and A₂) of the soluble proteins of bovine chromaffin granules were isolated by extraction from polyacrylamide gels after electrophoresis. The carbohydrate content of these proteins was 5%, with galactose, N -acetylgalactosamine, and sialic acid as the main sugars. Membranes of chromaffin granules were solubilized with sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) and three glycoproteins were isolated by sequential affinity chromatography on Concanavalin A (Con A) and wheat germ lectin (WGL) Sepharose columns. Two glycoproteins, designated GP II and III, were found to have a high carbohydrate content of about 30%. Mannose, galactose, N -acetylgalactosamine, and sialic acid were the main sugars. In addition membrane-bound dopamine β-hydroxylase was isolated by this procedure. No significant differences between the carbohydrate composition of the membrane-bound and the soluble enzyme were revealed. It was shown that all four subunits of dopamine β-hydroxylase possess carbohydrate chains with an affinity for Con A. The isolation methods established in this study will be useful for immunological studies on these glycoproteins.     

Relationship Between the Regulation of Enkephalin-Containing Peptide and Dopamine β-Hydroxylase Levels in Cultured Adrenal Chromaffin Cells

Adrenal medullary chromaffin cells were maintained under conditions known to increase their cellular levels of enkephalin-containing peptides and the effects of these treatments on another chromaffin vesicle component, dopamine beta-hydroxylase, were examined. Catecholamine-depleting drugs, such as tetrabenazine, and cyclic nucleotide-elevating drugs, including forskolin, 8-bromo-cyclic AMP, and theophylline, increase chromaffin cell enkephalin-containing peptide levels but fail to increase dopamine beta-hydroxylase. In contrast, insulin treatment increases the levels of both enkephalin-containing peptides and dopamine beta-hydroxylase. The increased amounts of enkephalin-containing peptides produced by tetrabenazine and by insulin are stored in subcellular particles with properties identical to chromaffin vesicles on density-gradient centrifugation. These results suggest that following insulin treatment chromaffin cells synthesize new chromaffin vesicles with a full complement of enkephalin-containing peptides, but that after treatment with catecholamine-depleting or cyclic nucleotide-related agents enkephalin-containing peptides can be inserted into preexisting vesicles or that new vesicles, made as a part of the normal turnover of cellular components, contain elevated peptide levels.     

Amphiphilic and Nonamphiphilic Forms of Bovine and Human Dopamine β-Hydroxylase

We show that human and bovine dopamine beta-hydroxylases (DBH) exist under three main molecular forms: a soluble nonamphiphilic form and two amphiphilic forms. Sedimentation in sucrose gradients and electrophoresis under nondenaturing conditions, by comparison with acetylcholinesterase (AChE), suggest that the three forms are tetramers of the DBH catalytic subunit and bind either no detergent, one detergent micelle, or two detergent micelles. By analogy with the Gna4 and Ga4 AChE forms, we propose to call the nonamphiphilic tetramer Dna4 and the amphiphilic tetramers Da4I and Da4II. In addition to the major tetrameric forms, DBH dimers occur as very minor species, both amphiphilic and nonamphiphilic. Reduction under nondenaturing conditions leads to a partial dissociation of tetramers into dimers, retaining their amphiphilic character. This suggests that the hydrophobic domain is not linked to the subunits through disulfide bonds. The two amphiphilic tetramers are insensitive to phosphatidylinositol phospholipase C, but may be converted into soluble DBH by proteolysis in a stepwise manner; Da4II----Da4I----Dna4. Incubation of soluble DBH with various phospholipids did not produce any amphiphilic form. Several bands corresponding to the catalytic subunits of bovine DBH were observed in sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, but this multiplicity was not simply correlated with the amphiphilic character of the enzyme. In the case of human DBH, we observed two bands of 78 and 84 kDa. As previously reported by others, the presence of the heavy subunit characterizes the amphiphilic forms of the enzyme. We discuss the nature of the hydrophobic domain, which could be an uncleaved signal peptide, and the organization of the different amphiphilic and nonamphiphilic DBH forms. We present two models in which dimers may possess either one hydrophobic domain or two domains belonging to each subunit; in both cases, a single detergent micelle would be bound per dimer.     

Comparative Incorporation of Proenkephalin-Derived Peptides, Chromogranin A, and Dopamine β-Hydroxylase into Chromaffin Vesicles

The incorporation of enkephalin-containing peptides (ECPs) derived from proenkephalin into chromaffin vesicles was examined in primary cultures of adrenal medullary chromaffin cells. Cells were pulse-labeled with [35S]methionine and chased for periods up to 24 h. Chromaffin vesicles in cell homogenates were then fractionated by density gradient centrifugation and the presence of [35S]Met-enkephalin sequences in gradient fractions determined. 35S-ECPs were incorporated into particles suggestive of immature vesicles within 1-2 h after radiolabeling. Vesicle maturation, measured by co-equilibration of 35S-ECPs and total ECPs in the gradients, was complete within 9-12 h and was unaffected by treatments that increase proenkephalin synthesis. Incorporation of [35S]chromogranin A into chromaffin vesicles followed a similar time course, but 35S-labeled dopamine beta-hydroxylase was much more slowly incorporated, possibly reflecting differences in incorporation of membrane and soluble components. In summary, the data demonstrate that ECPs are rapidly sequestered in immature chromaffin vesicles, a process unaltered by changing rates of proenkephalin synthesis.     

Regulation of Tyrosine Hydroxylase and Dopamine β-Hydroxylase mRNA Levels in Rat Adrenals by a Single and Repeated Immobilization Stress

Adrenal catecholamines are known to mediate many of the physiological consequences of the "fight or flight" response to stress. However, the mechanisms by which the long-term responses to repeated stress are mediated are less well understood and possibly involve alterations in gene expression. In this study the effects of a single and repeated immobilization stress on mRNA levels of the adrenal catecholamine biosynthetic enzymes, tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine beta-hydroxylase, were examined. A repeated 2-hr daily immobilization for 7 consecutive days markedly elevated both tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine beta-hydroxylase mRNA levels (about six- and fourfold, respectively). In contrast, tyrosine hydroxylase but not dopamine beta-hydroxylase mRNA levels were elevated immediately following a single immobilization. The elevation in tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA with a single immobilization was as high as with seven daily repeated immobilizations. This elevation was not sustained and returned toward control values 24 hr later. Both tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine beta-hydroxylase mRNA levels were elevated immediately following two daily immobilizations to levels similar to those observed after seven immobilizations and were maintained 24 hr later. The results indicate that both tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine beta-hydroxylase mRNA levels are elevated by stress; however, the mechanism and/or timing of their regulation are not identical.     

Differential Roles of Raphe Nuclei in the Regulation of Dopamine β-Hydroxylase in the Adrenal Gland of the Rat

The effect of reserpine on the activity of dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH) in the adrenal gland of the rat was determined following electrolytic lesion of the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) or medial raphe nucleus (MRN). In sham-operated rats, as well as in those with a lesion of the DRN, there was no significant modification of the action of reserpine on this enzyme. However, a lesion of MRN potentiated the inducing action of the drug. A specific role of MRN in the serotonergic regulation of adrenal DBH is suggested by this work.     

A Sensitive and Reliable Assay for Dopamine (β-Hydroxylase in Tissue

A new assay procedure for dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH) in tissue extracts is described. Solubilized DBH was adsorbed from crude extracts on Concanavalin A-Sepharose (Con A-Sepharose), resulting in enrichment of the enzyme as well as removal of endogenous catecholamines and inhibitory substances. The enzymatic assay was carried out with DBH still adsorbed to Con A-Sepharose. The adsorption of the DBH to Con A-Sepharose offers three advantages over previous assay procedures. (1) Because of removal of the endogenous inhibitory substances, a single Cu²⁺ concentration can be used for the determination of DBH activity, regardless of the tissue dilution or inhibitor content of the analysed sample. Using this procedure, the optimal Cu²⁺ concentration for DBH of bovine adrenal gland extracts was 3 μM and for rat brain 10 μM. (2) Because of removal of endogenous catecholamines, dopamine, the main physiological substrate of DBH in noradrenergic neurons, can be used for the assay. The enzymatic reaction product, noradrenaline, was determined by high performance liquid chromatography and electrochemical detection (hplc-ec). This procedure resulted in an approx. 10-fold increase in sensitivity of the assay compared with other procedures, e.g., the radioenzymatic assay. (3) Direct determination of the immediate product of the enzymatic reaction (noradrenaline) permits kinetic analysis. It was found that the Michaelis constants for the substrate (dopamine) and co-factor (ascorbic acid) (2 mM and 0.65 mM, respectively) determined in bovine adrenal tissue extracts by the described procedure were identical with the values for the purified DBH preparation.     

Partial Isolation of Two Classes of Dopamine β-Hydroxylase-Containing Particles Undergoing Rapid Axonal Transport in Rat Sciatic Nerve

The rapid bidirectional transport of dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH) in adrenergic axons provides a means of analyzing the life cycle of adrenergic storage vesicles. We compared the physical characteristics of DBH-containing particles traveling to or returning from the terminal varicosities of ligated rat sciatic nerves. Density gradient centrifugation and Sephacryl S1000 gel-permeation chromatography were used to fractionate extracts from nerve segments proximal or distal to the ligatures. A series of experiments indicated the existence of at least two populations of rapidly transported DBH-containing particles, a "light" 85-nm particle and a larger "dense" 120-nm particle. The 85-nm particles were prevalent in unligated nerve, but accounted for only one-third of the total anterogradely transported DBH activity accumulated after 18 h. The 120-nm particles were barely detectable in the unligated nerve, but they accumulated at twice the rate of the 85-nm particles and accounted for the rest of the anterogradely transported particulate DBH activity. These two populations of particles were readily isolated from proximal nerve extracts by sucrose density gradient centrifugation. Similar-appearing dense and light peaks of particulate DBH activity were obtained from distal nerve extracts. Much of the retrogradely transported DBH of the extracts, however, was associated with large particles (greater than 300 nm) not resolved by Sephacryl S1000. Retrogradely transported exogenous NGF was found only in the dense sucrose gradient peak. We propose that the 85-nm DBH-containing particles correspond to "large dense-cored vesicles," and that the 120-nm particles are derived from the dense tubules visualized in adrenergic nerves by the chromaffin reaction.     

Multiple Molecular Forms of Dopamine β-Hydroxylase in the C1300 Mouse Neuroblastoma Tumor and in the Serum of Tumor-Bearing Mice

Abstract: The distribution of the enzymatic activity of dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH) in linear sucrose gradients was studied for a soluble fraction of the C₁₃₀₀ mouse neuroblastoma tumor, for the serum of tumor-bearing A/J mice, and for adrenal tissue and serum of control mice. In controls (adrenal gland and serum of A/J mice), about 75% of the DBH activity was associated with a high-molecular-weight form, denoted as DBHA_A, with an apparent sedimentation coefficient of 11.3 S. About 25% of the DBH activity was attributable to a slower-sedimenting species (7.1 S), denoted as DBHB_B. In tumor supernatants and in the serum of tumor-bearing mice, about 55% of the DBH activity was present as the 7.1 S species (DBHR_B), while only 35% was recovered as the high-molecular-weight form (DBHA_A). Approximately 5% of the activity could be attributed to a separate form, with a sedimentation coefficient of about 4.5 S. This form is designated DBH_C. The ratio DBHR/DBHA is significantly higher in tumor tissue and in serum of tumor-bearing mice than in controls. The three enzymically active forms of DBH in the C₁₃₀₀ tumor are considered to represent the tetrameric (DBHA_C), dimeric (DBH_B), and monomeric (DBH_C) forms of the enzyme.     

Immunohistochemical Localization of G Protein β1, β2, β3, β4, β5, and γ3 Subunits in the Adult Rat Brain

Abstract: The regional distributions of the G protein β subunits (Gβ1–β5) and of the Gγ3 subunit were examined by immunohistochemical methods in the adult rat brain. In general, the Gβ and Gγ3 subunits were widely distributed throughout the brain, with most regions containing several Gβ subunits within their neuronal networks. The olfactory bulb, neocortex, hippocampus, striatum, thalamus, cerebellum, and brainstem exhibited light to intense Gβ immunostaining. Negative immunostaining was observed in cortical layer I for Gβ1 and layer IV for Gβ4. The hippocampal dentate granular and CA1–CA3 pyramidal cells displayed little or no positive immunostaining for Gβ2 or Gβ4. No anti-Gβ4 immunostaining was observed in the pars compacta of the substantia nigra or in the cerebellar granule cell layer and Purkinje cells. Immunoreactivity for Gβ1 was absent from the cerebellar molecular layer, and Gβ2 was not detected in the Purkinje cells. No positive Gγ3 immunoreactivity was observed in the lateral habenula, lateral septal nucleus, or Purkinje cells. Double-fluorescence immunostaining with anti-Gγ3 antibody and individual anti-Gβ1–β5 antibodies displayed regional selectivity with Gβ1 (cortical layers V–VI) and Gβ2 (cortical layer I). In conclusion, despite the widespread overlapping distributions of Gβ1–β5 with Gγ3, specific dimeric associations in situ were observed within discrete brain regions.     

Effects of Systemic Administration of 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine to Mice on Tyrosine Hydroxylase, l-3,4-Dihydroxyphenylalanine Decarboxylase, Dopamine β-Hydroxylase, and Monoamine Oxidase Activities in the Striatum and Hypothalamus

The effects of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) (30 mg/kg subcutaneously per day for 8 days) to C57BL/6N mice were studied on tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine decarboxylase (DDC), and monoamine oxidase (MAO) activities in the striatum, and TH, DDC, dopamine-beta-hydroxylase (DBH), and MAO activities in the hypothalamus. Treatment with MPTP led to a large decrease in TH activity and a parallel decrease in DDC activity in the striatum, as compared with the saline controls. In contrast, MPTP administration did not cause a decrease of the activities of TH, DDC, and DBH in the hypothalamus. There was also no reduction in MAO activities of striatum and hypothalamus. These data indicate that MPTP administration to mice results in specific degeneration of the dopaminergic nigrostriatal pathway and that DDC in the mouse striatum may mainly be localized in the dopaminergic neurons with TH.     

人Daintain 基因5'调控区序列的生物信息学分析

目的：探讨人Daintain 基因5''调控区的序列特征。方法：利用在线软件BLAST、Neural Network Promoter Prediction、Promoter 2.0、Promoter SCAN、EMBOSS、CpG Island Searcher 和TF SEARCH预测人Daintain 基因启动子区域、CpG 岛分布和转录因子结 合位点。结果：人Daintain 基因5''调控区存在1 个CAAT盒。Daintain 基因可能存在6 个启动子位点,CpG岛可能位于216 bp 区 间( 23 ~ 238 bp)。评分85 分以上时,该序列存在251 个可能的转录因子结合位点;评分90 分以上时,该序列存在70 个可能的转 录因子结合位点;评分95 分以上时,该序列存在16个可能的转录因子结合位点;评分100 分以上时,该序列存在7 个可能的转 录因子结合位点;这些结合的转录因子基本是与免疫细胞增殖或性别发生有关。结论：人Daintain 基因5''调控区的生物信息学研 究表明其转录受甲基化和多种转录因子的调控,为研究Daintain 基因启动子的功能提供理论基础。     

Structure-Activity Analyses of β-Amyloid Peptides: Contributions of the β25–35 Region to Aggregation and Neurotoxicity

Abstract: The neurodegeneration of Alzheimer's disease has been theorized to be mediated, at least in part, by insoluble aggregates of β-amyloid protein that are widely distributed in the form of plaques throughout brain regions affected by the disease. Previous studies by our laboratory and others have demonstrated that the neurotoxicity of β-amyloid in vitro is dependent upon its spontaneous adoption of an aggregated structure. In this study, we report extensive structure-activity analyses of a series of peptides derived from both the proposed active fragment of β-amyloid, β25–35, and the full-length protein, β1–42. We examine the effects of amino acid residue deletions and substitutions on the ability of β-amyloid peptides to both form sedimentable aggregates and induce toxicity in cultured hippocampal neurons. We observe that significant levels of peptide aggregation are always associated with significant β-amyloid-induced neurotoxicity. Further, both N- and C-terminal regions of β25–35 appear to contribute to these processes. In particular, significant disruption of peptide aggregation and toxicity result from alterations in the β33–35 region. In β1–42 peptides, aggregation disruption is evidenced by changes in both electrophoresis profiles and fibril morphology visualized at the light and electron microscope levels. Using circular dichroism analysis in a subset of peptides, we observed classic features of β-sheet secondary structure in aggregating, toxic β-amyloid peptides but not in nonaggregating, nontoxic β-amyloid peptides. Together, these data further define the primary and secondary structures of β-amyloid that are involved in its in vitro assembly into neurotoxic peptide aggregates and may underlie both its pathological deposition and subsequent degenerative effects in Alzheimer's disease.