Height cycles in the 18th and 19th centuries

Spectral analysis of the physical stature of Americans and Europeans in the 18th and 19th centuries reveals a cyclical structure similar to the traditional view of the business cycle: a longer cycle with a length of 7-10 years, and a shorter cycle with a length of 3-5 years. The correlation between height cycles and cycles of economic variables such as grain prices indicates an influence of economic cycles on physical stature. The phase shift between the cycles indicates that economic conditions are especially important for growth in infancy. In part, this result is due to a cumulative effect: born into a recessionary period, a child is likely to face several cyclical downturns during the growing years.     

Physical growth in a transitional economy: the aftermath of South African apartheid

The economic transition in developing countries is not always the result of the change from a centrally-planned to a free-market economy, but may be found within an already existing free-market economy as a result of profound political change, as in South Africa. The release of Nelson Mandela in February 1990 heralded an end both to the political system of apartheid and to the concomitant social, political, and economic disenfranchisement of 30 million non-White people in South Africa. The first freely elected non-White government came to power in 1994 and initiated a number of social and economic reforms aimed at alleviating the worst consequences of apartheid. This paper examines the effect of post-apartheid economic and social transition on the growth and development of urban children. Over 4000 children born in Soweto and Johannesburg were enrolled in the Birth to Ten (BTT) birth-cohort study in 1990. Whilst these children were born with lower birth weights than in developed countries, they did grow strongly in infancy, particularly in weight, to reflect normal reference values for body mass index (BMI) by 1 year of age. While post-apartheid social and economic changes were expected to take some time to affect child growth and development, the rate of change has been slower than expected. Data from the BTT study demonstrate that the growth of White children continues to be superior to that of their non-White peers and differences that existed at birth and during infancy have not diminished during childhood and early adolescence. Whatever factors are changed at the national or community levels during economic (and social) transition in South Africa appear not yet to have resulted in improved child physical growth.     

Changes in the Regional Prevalence of Child Obesity in 4th, 8th,and 11th Grade Students in Texas From 2000–2002 to 2004–2005

Although national and state estimates of child obesity are available, data at these levels are insufficient to monitor effects of local obesity prevention initiatives. The purpose of this study was to examine regional changes in the prevalence of obesity due to statewide policies and programs among children in grades 4, 8, and 11 in Texas Health Services Regions (HSRs) between 2000–2002 and 2004–2005, and nine selected counties in 2004–2005. A cross‐sectional, probability‐based sample of 23,190 Texas students in grades 4, 8, and 11 were weighed and measured to obtain BMI. Obesity was >95th percentile for BMI by age/sex using Centers for Disease Control and Prevention growth charts. Child obesity prevalence significantly decreased between 2000–2002 and 2004–2005 for 4th grade students in the El Paso HSR (?7.0%, P = 0.005). A leveling off in the prevalence of obesity was noted for all other regions for grades 4, 8, and 11. County‐level data supported the statistically significant decreases noted in the El Paso region. The reduction of child obesity levels observed in the El Paso area is one of the few examples of effective programs and policies based on a population‐wide survey: in this region, a local foundation funded extensive regional implementation of community programs for obesity prevention, including an evidence‐based elementary school‐based health promotion program, adult nutrition and physical activity programs, and a radio and television advertising campaign. Results emphasize the need for sustained school, community, and policy efforts, and that these efforts can result in decreases in child obesity at the population level.     

Habilitation of Patients with Congenital Malformations Associated with Thalidomide: Medical-Social Aspects

The area of particular competence of the social worker in the habilitation of the congenitally malformed is in the social development of the child. It is an interest which continues throughout all stages of growth and development: (1) During the preschool and early life, the first consideration is to minimize or eliminate the disability. The social worker plays a supporting role to the doctor. (2) The middle years of growth are centred around the problems of education. The social worker plays an interpretative role with respect to family, school, and doctor. (3) For the adolescent and young adult the contact with the disabled person is more direct. The individual must face and solve his own problems and learn to become an independent adult. Throughout the entire development the doctor, social worker, and teacher are dependent each on the other.     

Child social ethology and peer relations: a developmental review of methodology and findings

During the last three decades, developmental research has increasingly emphasized the relevance of peer relations in children’s socialization. However, most studies of child development still focus upon individual differences in social status, tacitly neglecting relational constraints inherent in the ecology of the peer group. In contrast, socioethological approaches have stressed that natural groups provide a variety of distinct social roles that may have a differential impact upon individual growth and development. However, ethological analyses have often been limited to aggressive relations and group dominance structures. Comparable studies of affiliative organization have been hampered by the paucity of models for the study of cohesive social structure, only recently having begun to overcome this obstacle. A potential third dimension of preschool peer group ethology, object use, has been relatively neglected in studies of peer relations. However, recent research suggests that object use is a salient and important component of the social world of the young child. This article reviews methodology and recent findings in the area of peer relations and discusses the developmental implications of this work. Received: 8 December 1998 / Received in revised form: 26 March 1999 / Accepted: 31 March 1999     

Child growth and nutritional status in a high-poverty community in eastern Kentucky

The research reported in this paper examines the relationship between household socioeconomic measures, child growth, and nutritional status in a community in eastern Kentucky with a high rate of poverty. It is based on the premise that child growth and nutritional status reflect the social circumstances in which they occur. 21.6% of the children exhibited low height (<15th percentile of National Center for Health Statistics [NCHS] reference values), with 13% of the girls exhibiting stunting (<5th percentile). Thirty-three percent of the children exhibited overweight, and 13% exhibited obesity (>85th percentile and >95th percentile of National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey [NHANES] reference values, respectively); 21.4% of boys were obese, compared to 8.7% of girls. Analysis of variance indicated that child stature is best explained by the father's education level interacting with employment status, and by the mother's employment status interacting with household poverty level. Weight is best explained by the mother's employment status. However, the relationships among socioeconomic measures and growth outcomes differed by gender of the child. These issues are discussed in light of the anthropology literature and the situation in Bridges County, Kentucky where the research took place. Am J Phys Anthropol 109:129–142, 1999. © 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Kin investment in wage-labor economies

Various human groups, from food foragers to inner-city urban Americans, have used widespread sharing of resources through kin networks as a means of buffering themselves against fluctuations in resource availability in their environments. This paper addresses the effects of progressive incorporation into a wage-labor economy on the benefits of traditional kin networks for two social classes in urban South India. Predictions regarding the effects of kin network wealth, education, and size on child and spouse characteristics and methods of financing marriages are tested using various regression techniques. Despite the rapid growth of participation in a wage-labor economy, it is found that kin network characteristics still have an important impact on investment behavior among families in Bangalore in both social classes. Network wealth is found to have a positive effect on child and spouse characteristics, and large networks are found to act as significant drains on family resources. However, the results for education are broadly consistent with an interpretation of increasing family autonomy as parents’ education has a far stronger influence on child and spouse characteristics across categories than network education does. Finally, professional-class parents are found to prefer financing marriages using formal mechanisms such as savings and bank loans while working-class parents preferentially finance marriages using credit from relatives and friends.     

Child wellbeing and income inequality in rich societies: ecological cross sectional study

Objectives To examine associations between child wellbeing and material living standards (average income), the scale of differentiation in social status (income inequality), and social exclusion (children in relative poverty) in rich developed societies.Design Ecological, cross sectional studies.Setting Cross national comparisons of 23 rich countries; cross state comparisons within the United States.Population Children and young people.Main outcome measures The Unicef index of child wellbeing and its components for rich countries; eight comparable measures for the US states and District of Columbia (teenage births, juvenile homicides, infant mortality, low birth weight, educational performance, dropping out of high school, overweight, mental health problems).Results The overall index of child wellbeing was negatively correlated with income inequality (r=−0.64, P=0.001) and percentage of children in relative poverty (r=−0.67, P=0.001) but not with average income (r=0.15, P=0.50). Many more indicators of child wellbeing were associated with income inequality or children in relative poverty, or both, than with average incomes. Among the US states and District of Columbia all indicators were significantly worse in more unequal states. Only teenage birth rates and the proportion of children dropping out of high school were lower in richer states.Conclusions Improvements in child wellbeing in rich societies may depend more on reductions in inequality than on further economic growth.     

Social Factors Influencing Child Health in Ghana

Objectives

Social factors have profound effects on health. Children are especially vulnerable to social influences, particularly in their early years. Adverse social exposures in childhood can lead to chronic disorders later in life. Here, we sought to identify and evaluate the impact of social factors on child health in Ghana. As Ghana is unlikely to achieve the Millennium Development Goals’ target of reducing child mortality by two-thirds between 1990 and 2015, we deemed it necessary to identify social determinants that might have contributed to the non-realisation of this goal.

Methods

ScienceDirect, PubMed, MEDLINE via EBSCO and Google Scholar were searched for published articles reporting on the influence of social factors on child health in Ghana. After screening the 98 articles identified, 34 of them that met our inclusion criteria were selected for qualitative review.

Results

Major social factors influencing child health in the country include maternal education, rural-urban disparities (place of residence), family income (wealth/poverty) and high dependency (multiparousity). These factors are associated with child mortality, nutritional status of children, completion of immunisation programmes, health-seeking behaviour and hygiene practices.

Conclusions

Several social factors influence child health outcomes in Ghana. Developing more effective responses to these social determinants would require sustainable efforts from all stakeholders including the Government, healthcare providers and families. We recommend the development of interventions that would support families through direct social support initiatives aimed at alleviating poverty and inequality, and indirect approaches targeted at eliminating the dependence of poor health outcomes on social factors. Importantly, the expansion of quality free education interventions to improve would-be-mother’s health knowledge is emphasised.     

Child and Parent Psychological Problems Influence Child Weight Control

This study used path analytic methods to assess the influence of child psychopathology measured using the Child Behavior Checklist and parent psychiatric symptoms measured using the Cornell Medical Index on changes in child percent overweight in obese 8- to 11-year-old children over 2 years (6 months of treatment, 18 months of follow-up) provided family-based behavioral intervention. Path analysis for the 0–6 month change showed the influence of mother and father psychiatric symptoms and child age on child anxiety/depression scores that in turn influenced child percent overweight change during treatment, accounting for 41 % of the shared variance. The path analysis for follow-up change showed mother and father psychiatric symptoms influenced child social problems at the first stage, and child social problems influenced child percent overweight change, accounting for 68.5% of the shared variance. These results provide the first demonstration that both parent and child problems may influence the short- and long-term success of obese children who participate in family-based behavioral treatment programs.     

The Imagined Child: Ambiguity and Agency in Australian Intercountry Adoption

The adoption by Australian couples of children from ‘overseas’ involves claborate processes of bureaucratic assessment, approval and ‘parent education’. This paper explores adults' notions of ‘child’(ren) from ‘overseas’, which help shape and constitute such social processes, not only with couples seeking to adopt, but also with those cultural brokers who assess, regulate and ‘educate’ couples pursuing adoption, such as social workers and psychologists. The ways in which the adoptive ‘child’ is imagined and anticipated by counsellors and would‐be parents alike are explored through ethnographic data from South Australia. However, the proclivities of prospective adoptive parents to imagine their child‐to‐be are attenuated by certain social knowledge in relation to countries of origin. This leads to an exploration of ambiguities and tensions between the intercountry adoptive child as a tabula rasa and as a culturally and historically constituted person. The significance of ambiguities and contradictions for the child's agency and identities is highlighted, within the context of certain social policies around adoption. The chronological age of the child at the time of ‘allocation’ to its adoptive parents is considered as constituting a cultural fulcrum, upon which the identity and situational significance of the ‘origins’ of the child are deemed to subsequently turn.     

Familial Accumulation of Social Anxiety Symptoms and Maladaptive Emotion Regulation

BackgroundSocial anxiety is thought to be strongly related to maladaptive emotion regulation (ER). As social anxiety symptoms accumulate in families, we hypothesize that maladaptive ER is also more prevalent in families with anxious children. Thus, we analyze differences in emotion regulation of both child and mother in relation to social anxiety, as well as both their ER strategies in dealing with anxiety. Further, a positive relation between child and maternal ER strategies is assumed.MethodChildren (aged 9 to 13 years) with social, anxiety disorder (SAD; n = 25) and healthy controls (HC, n = 26) as well as their mothers completed several measures of social anxiety and trait ER strategies towards anxiety. As ER of children is still in development, age is considered as covariate.ResultsSAD children and their mothers reported more maladaptive ER strategies than HC dyads. Maternal maladaptive ER was related negatively to child adaptive ER which was further moderated by the child’s age.DiscussionMaladaptive ER strategies seem to contribute to the exacerbation of social anxiety in both mother and child. Mothers reporting maladaptive ER may have difficulties supporting their child in coping with social anxiety while simultaneously also experiencing heightened levels of anxiety. Deeper understanding of interactional processes between mothers and children during development can assist the comprehension of factors maintaining SAD. Implications for future research and possible consequences for interventions are discussed.     

Life History theory hypotheses on child growth: Potential implications for short and long‐term child growth,development and health

Life history theory integrates ecological, physiological, and molecular layers within an evolutionary framework to understand organisms’ strategies to optimize survival and reproduction. Two life history hypotheses and their implications for child growth, development, and health (illustrated in the South African context) are reviewed here. One hypothesis suggests that there is an energy trade‐off between linear growth and brain growth. Undernutrition in infancy and childhood may trigger adaptive physiological mechanisms prioritizing the brain at the expense of body growth. Another hypothesis is that the period from conception to infancy is a critical window of developmental plasticity of linear growth, the duration of which may vary between and within populations. The transition from infancy to childhood may mark the end of a critical window of opportunity for improving child growth. Both hypotheses emphasize the developmental plasticity of linear growth and the potential determinants of growth variability (including the role of parent–offspring conflict in maternal resources allocation). Implications of these hypotheses in populations with high burdens of undernutrition and infections are discussed. In South Africa, HIV/AIDS during pregnancy (associated with adverse birth outcomes, short duration of breastfeeding, and social consequences) may lead to a shortened window of developmental plasticity of growth. Furthermore, undernutrition and infectious diseases in children living in South Africa, a country undergoing a rapid nutrition transition, may have adverse consequences on individuals’ cognitive abilities and risks of cardio‐metabolic diseases. Studies are needed to identify physiological mechanisms underlying energy allocation between biological functions and their potential impacts on health.     

Helpful grandmothers in rural Ethiopia: A study of the effect of kin on child survival and growth

Kin selection and parental investment theories state that, in highly social species, such as humans, individuals can increase their inclusive fitness by extending support to their relatives. Here, we document patterns of kin support in a rural Ethiopian community, where postmarital residence practices provide differential access to relatives. Using demographic, anthropometric, and behavioral data collected from four villages we are able to (a) identify the effects of the presence of kin on child mortality and growth patterns and (b) provide detailed information on the role of relatives within the household.

Mortality analyses indicate that grandmothers had a positive effect on child survival. Anthropometric data reveal that maternal grandmothers had a particularly beneficial effect on child height, but paternal grandmothers less so. Time allocation data suggest that grandmothers continued to visit their daughters' households, irrespective of postmarital residence, where they relieved their daughters of heavy domestic tasks rather than helping with direct grandchild care. Matrilocal postmarital residence was associated with improved child survival, although children in matrilocal households were actually smaller. This may be due to wealth effects, increased competition between siblings, or higher survival of smaller infants in matrilocal households.     

Parental Socioeconomic Instability and Child Obesity

Using data from the 1986 to 2010 National Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY) and the NLSY Child and Young Adult Supplement, this research explores how changes in parental socioeconomic status relate to child obesity over time. Results from linear mixed-effects models indicate that maternal educational gains and maternal employment transitions significantly increased their child’s body mass index (BMI). This finding suggests that mothers who work may have less time to devote to monitoring their child’s food intake and physical activity, which places their children at higher risks of becoming overweight or obese over time. Conversely, father’s work transitions and educational gains contribute to decreases in child’s BMI. Thus, work instability and increasing educational attainment for the traditional breadwinner of the household corresponds to better child weight outcomes. Results also suggest that there are racial differences in child BMI that remain after adjusting for changes in socioeconomic status, which indicate that the same structural disadvantages that operate to keep minorities in lower social class standings in society also work to hinder minorities from advancing among and out of their social class. Policy implications related to curbing child obesity are discussed.     

Three‐dimensional analysis of sexual dimorphism in human thoracic vertebrae: Implications for the respiratory system and spine morphology

Research suggests that nonmaternal caregivers (allomothers) offer essential assistance through caregiving and provisioning, helping to support lengthy child development. Here, we examine the role of allomothers and the broader social and sharing network on Aka forager children's anthropometrics. We hypothesize that nonmaternal investors strategically target their assistance when it is most needed and when it will have the greatest effect. We evaluate children's nutritional status using WHO standards [weight‐for‐age (WAZ), height‐for‐age (HAZ), and weight‐for‐height (WHZ)] during four periods of child development [early infancy (birth to <9 months), mobility to weaning (9 to <36 months), early childhood (36 to <72 months), and middle childhood (72 to <120 months); N = 127]. We explore the effects of allomothers and the social network across these different risk periods and examine whether the broader social network buffers the loss of a primary allomother. ANOVA results suggest that girls may be experiencing some growth faltering, while boys start smaller and remain small across these stages. We used OLS multiple regression models to evaluate the effects of sex, camp composition, risk periods, and allomothers' presence on WAZ, HAZ, and WHZ. Grandmothers are the most influential allomother, with their effect most evident during the 9 to <36 month period. Camp size was also associated with greater WAZ, suggesting that children residing in small camps may be disadvantaged. Our findings also indicate that, under specific residence patterns, cooperative child rearing networks buffer the loss of a grandmother. Overall, our results suggest the importance of social networks to children's nutritional status and that individuals target investment to critical phases. Am J Phys Anthropol 153:513–525, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Children’s Experience of Posttraumatic Growth: Distinguishing General from Domain-Specific Correlates

Although the five domains of posttraumatic growth (new possibilities, relating to others, personal strength, spiritual change and appreciation of life) have been studied extensively in adults, little is known about these domains and their correlates in children. We aimed to examine whether demographic and/or social characteristics are related to children’s reports of overall posttraumatic growth and of growth in specific domains. In a general population study, children aged 8–12 years who had been exposed to adverse events (N = 1290) filled out questionnaires on their experiences, demographic characteristics (gender, age, time lag since event), stress reactions, peer support, religiosity and posttraumatic growth. All demographic and social characteristics were related to overall posttraumatic growth, except time lag. Associations varied across the five domains with the strongest effects being found for stress reactions and religiosity. A higher level of stress reactions was related to more growth in all domains (general effect), whereas religious children experienced more spiritual growth than non-religious children without differences on other domains (domain specific effect). Other effects were small, and some did not remain significant after Bonferroni corrections. These findings suggest the presence of both general and domain-specific correlates of child posttraumatic growth. Although effects were generally small, the current findings show the need to differentiate between the domains of posttraumatic growth in both further research and clinical practice. This will allow a better understanding of the mechanisms of posttraumatic growth in children as well as more tailored assessment and intervention.     

Child mortality, social status, and fertility in India

The incidence of child mortality in relation to the social status and fertility of Indian women was investigated on the assumptions that: 1) the higher the social status, the lower the child mortality rate; and 2) the lower the child mortality rate, the lower the family size. 311 married women in Chandigarh were grouped into 4 status categories: (1) higher educated working women (95); (2) higher educated nonworking women (75); (3) less educated nonworking women (75); and (4) less educated working women (66). The 311 women gave birth to a total of 1075 children (960 living and 115 who had died, mostly between the ages 0-5 years). Percentage of children living (89%) was different for each status category: 93% for category 1; 92% for category 2; 91% for category 3; and 81% for category 4. When analyzed by proportion of women who had lost children in each status category, the relationship between child mortality and social status confirmed the assumption that the higher the social status, the lower the mortality. In category 1, 87% had not experienced any child mortality in their family; in category 2, the figure was 77%; category 3, 72%; and category 4, 48%. The findings also confirmed the other assumption that the lower the mortality rate, the lower the fertility (Table 2).     

Developmental Trajectories of Social Skills during Early Childhood and Links to Parenting Practices in a Japanese Sample

This study used data from a nationwide survey in Japan to model the developmental course of social skills during early childhood. The goals of this study were to identify longitudinal profiles of social skills between 2 and 5 years of age using a group-based trajectory approach, and to investigate whether and to what extent parenting practices at 2 years of age predicted developmental trajectories of social skills during the preschool period. A relatively large sample of boys and girls (N > 1,000) was assessed on three social skill dimensions (Cooperation, Self-control, and Assertion) at four time points (ages 2, 3, 4, and 5), and on four parenting practices (cognitive and emotional involvement, avoidance of restriction and punishment, social stimulation, and social support for parenting) at age 2. The results indicated that for each social skill dimension, group-based trajectory models identified three distinct trajectories: low, moderate, and high. Multinomial regression analysis revealed that parenting practice variables showed differential contributions to development of child social skills. Specifically, Cooperation and Assertion were promoted by cognitive and emotional involvement, Self-control by social stimulation, and Assertion by avoidance of restriction and punishment. Abundant social support for parenting was not associated with higher child social skills trajectories. We found heterogeneity in developmental profiles of social skills during the preschool ages, and we identified parenting practices that contributed to different patterns of social skills development. We discussed the implications of higher-quality parenting practices on the improvement of child social skills across early childhood.