Relationship between Modelling Accuracy and Inflection Point Attributes of Several Equations while Modelling Stand Diameter Distributions

In this study, seven popular equations, including 3-parameter Weibull, 2-parameter Weibull, Gompertz, Logistic, Mitscherlich, Korf and R distribution, were used to model stand diameter distributions for exploring the relationship between the equations’ inflection point attributes and model accuracy. A database comprised of 146 diameter frequency distributions of Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook.) plantations was used to demonstrate model fitting and comparison. Results showed that the inflection points of the stand diameter cumulative percentage distribution ranged from 0.4 to 0.6, showing a 1/2 close rule. The equation’s inflection point attribute was strongly related to its model accuracy. Equation with an inflection point showed much higher accuracy than that without an inflection point. The larger the effective inflection point interval of the fitting curve of the equation was, and the closer the inflection point was to 0.5 for the equations with fixed inflection points, the higher the equation’s accuracy was. It could be found that the equation’s inflection point had close relationship with skewness of diameter distribution and stand age, stand density, which provided a scientific basis for model selection of a stand diameter distribution for Chinese fir plantations and other tree species.     

樟子松沙地人工林直径分布模拟

利用反 Weibull函数模拟了章古台沙地樟子松人工林的直径分布规律 .结果表明 ,反 Weibull分布函数模拟樟子松人工林的直径分布效果好 ,具有精度高、适应性强等特点 .分别建立了反 Weibull分布函数 3个参数与林分年龄及密度之间的关系方程以及直径分布与 3个参数的回归方程 ,这些方程可用来预估林分产量、出材量以及评价经营效果     

麻城黄山松天然林直径分布

为研究黄山松天然次生林直径分布特征,以麻城市黄山松天然次生林为研究对象,采用标准样地调查,计算林分直径的偏度、峰度,林分直径分布的Shannon-Weiner和Simpson指数,运用负指数分布、normal分布、lognormal分布、logistic分布和Weibull分布等5种概率密度函数对黄山松天然次生林林分直...     

Density effect, self-thinning and size distribution in Pinus densiflora Sieb. et Zucc. stands

The competition-density (C-D) effect for given times and self-thinning over time in even-aged, natural, pure stands of Pinus densiflora Sieb. et Zucc. were analyzed with the reciprocal equation of the C-D effect in self-thinning stands, and the equation describing the time-trajectory of mean stem volume and stand density. The C-D effect and self-thinning were consistently well explained by the two equations. Differences in mean stem volume and in stand density among the stands tended to merge with increasing stand age. The self-thinning line with a slope of approximately –3/2 was reached by the higher density stand prior to the medium and lower density stands. The skewness of tree height distribution showed positive values, which means that the distribution is more or less L-shaped, and in addition the skewness decreased with increasing mean tree height, which indicates that smaller trees died as the stands grew. This trend is consistent with the asymmetric (one-sided) competition hypothesis that self-thinning is driven by competition for light. The tree height distribution was analyzed using the Weibull distribution. The location parameter h _min of the Weibull distribution increased with increasing stand age, and the scale parameter a tended to increase slightly with increasing stand age. The range of the shape parameter b of the Weibull distribution corresponded to that of the skewness.     

长白落叶松林龄序列上的生物量及碳储量分配规律

由于多年来的过量采伐和重采轻育,伊春东折棱河林场人工长白落叶松林分质量普遍下降,森林生态功能严重衰退。结合对该研究地同一立地类型的人工长白落叶松林(Larix ologensis)林木各组分生物量垂直分配规律的分析,研究了其生物量在年龄序列上的分布及分配规律,为提高其林分生物量及碳储量采取相应的抚育管理措施提供一定的理论基础。结果表明,处于中龄、近熟及成熟林中的林木树干、树皮及活枝生物量所占比例受年龄影响较小,而叶生物量随林龄增大呈现明显递减变化;不同年龄长白落叶松的垂直分布规律基本一致:其树皮及树干生物量随树高增大呈现递减规律,其活枝及叶生物量主要集中分布于树冠中部,而其死枝生物量未呈现明显分布规律;长白落叶松根系生物量随着林分年龄的增大,其粗根、中根及细根所占比例呈现递减规律,而其大根所占比例随年龄的增大基本呈增大趋势。通过统计分析得出,长白落叶松生物量与林分蓄积的最优模型为:W=0.4909M+9.6624(R²=0.8893),进而估算得出:研究区域幼龄长白落叶松林分生物量为1273.72 t/hm²,碳储量为656.98 t/hm²;中龄长白落叶松林分生物量为15480.13 t/hm²,碳储量为7984.65 t/hm²;近熟、成熟龄长白落叶松林分生物量为7684.41 t/hm²,碳储量为3963.62 t/hm²。随林分结构的改善以及中龄、近熟及成熟林分的不断增加,生物量及碳储量会相应增加。     

Diversity of patch structure in Central European forests: are tree diameter distributions in near-natural multilayered <Emphasis Type="Italic">Abies</Emphasis>–<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fagus</Emphasis> stands heterogeneous?

Near-natural multilayered Abies alba Mill.–Fagus sylvatica L. forests form structural mosaics and consist of patches in different developmental stages and phases. Knowledge of the diversity of patch structure and adequate methods to describe the diameter structure is essential for modeling forest dynamics. The hypotheses tested in the study are that near-natural multilayered stands are structurally heterogeneous (i.e., tree diameter (DBH) distributions of these stands are heterogeneous) and, that in these forests the finite-mixture models are suitable for modeling the empirical DBH distributions. Diversity of patch structure was studied based on data collected from 33 sample plots. In multilayered stands, four groups of empirical DBH distributions were distinguished using hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and correspondence analysis (CA). Stands investigated are structurally heterogeneous; 27% multilayered stands showed the slightly rotated sigmoid (SRS) type of empirical DBH distribution, 34% the distinctly rotated sigmoid (DRS) type, 18% the bimodal M-shaped (BMS) type, and 21% the unimodal highly skewed (UHS) type. The gamma distribution, the two-component mixture gamma model, and the two-component mixture Weibull model were more flexible for the SRS type of DBH distributions. The average p-values (Chi-square test) for these theoretical distributions were 0.4712, 0.4718, and 0.4660, respectively. The two-component mixture gamma model and the two-component mixture Weibull model were a good choice for modeling the DRS, BMS, and UHS types of DBH distributions. The average p-values (Chi-square test) for these models ranged from 0.2684 to 0.4854. In near-natural multilayered Abies–Fagus forest patches of different DBH distributions occur together. The empirical DBH distributions in these stands are characterized by irregular and complicated shapes and therefore are best approximated by finite-mixture models.     

六盘山南坡不同密度华北落叶松水源林生长过程比较

以六盘山南侧的华北落叶松水源涵养林为研究对象,利用标准木树干解析法,研究了21年生低、中、高3种密度(1200、1500和2000 株·hm^-2)华北落叶松人工林的生长过程和直径结构.结果表明：华北落叶松3种密度林分在10年生前各项生长指标差异不显著;10年生后的林木直径、单株材积和林分蓄积生长过程明显不同;21年生时,低密度林分的生长状况明显优于中、高密度林分,但树高生长受密度影响不显著;3种密度林分直径分布的偏度系数(S_k)差异较大,高密度林分的S_k（0.338)大于中密度(0.072)和低密度林分(0.015).前者直径分布偏离正态分布,呈现顶峰偏左的现象;后者的直径分布接近正态分布,密度结构较合理;中密度林分直径分布的峰度系数(K,1.691)大于高密度(1.532)和低密度林分(0.665).说明中密度林分的林木分化程度比高、低密度林分小;林龄为21年的华北落叶松人工林的合理保留密度应为1200 株·hm^-2.     

基于经验模型和机理模型的杉木人工林生物量估测对比研究

为了揭示间伐干扰下杉木人工林生物量的变化规律,研究利用江西省吉水县石阳林场的36块杉木人工林样地的实测数据和研究区气候数据,通过基于经验的引入地位指数(SI)的生物量生长方程组和基于机理的3-PG模型,模拟并预估林分生物量,分析在间伐和非间伐的情况下,不同立地的林分其生物量0-50a的变化。结果表明:(1)构建了生物量生长方程组,并在参数a、b、c中引入地位指数SI,发现改进后的模型对于基础模型拟合精度更高,且对数似然比检验表明,改进效果显著(P<0.05)。(2)通过对3-PG模型预测精度验证发现,预估值和实测值之间有很高的一致性,各因子的决定系数(R²)在0.65-0.96之间,其中,胸径和树高的R²均高于0.92;各因子的平均相对误差(MRE)不超过26%。(3)通过比较经验模型和机理模型的生物量预测发现,经验模型的预测误差MRE为16.50%,机理模型为23.52%,经验模型预估精度更高。进一步对未来预测对比分析表明,机理模型预估值高于经验模型。(4)两个模型模拟的杉木人工林生物量规律一致,即随着林龄的增加,杉木人工林林分总生物量均表现出先快速增加,后逐渐平稳的趋势;并且间伐不会改变这种趋势,但间伐林分在间伐后的生物量生长速率高于无间伐林分。此外,由于SI对经验模型影响显著,改进模型拟合效果更好,更具有生态学意义。参数化后的3-PG模型模预估精度较高,能够为江西杉木人工林生长规律研究提供依据。虽然经验模型和机理模型在对研究区杉木人工林生物量的预估上均具有较好的表现,但各具特点和局限性。经验模型参数较易获得,且经验模型预测生物量、林分胸高断面积和林分平均树高的R²、MRE均优于机理模型;但模型对于建模数据内的评价效果较好,对于建模数据外的应用具有局限性,即经验模型更适合模拟生长期间的某一阶段的林分生物量。机理模型虽然需要的参数较多,但是考虑了生态学原理,弥补了经验模型的不足,可较好解释和模拟环境因子对树木生长的影响,对校正数据之外生长阶段的林分生物量预测更有优势。     

基于抚育间伐效应的落叶松人工林直径分布动态模拟

基于黑龙江省孟家岗林场长白落叶松人工林5块固定样地(其中1块为对照样地,4块为抚育间伐样地,断面积强度为3.7%~49.7%)1974—2014年(林龄为19～59 a)复测的31次胸径数据,采用三参数Weibull分布函数拟合5块样地各年份直径分布,研究了直径分布曲线随林龄的动态变化规律,并分析了抚育间伐对林分直径分布曲线及Weibull分布参数的动态影响.构建了基于抚育间伐效应的Weibull分布参数预测的联立方程组模型,分别采用三阶段最小二乘法及度量误差法估计了模型的参数.结果表明: 未间伐林分(对照)直径分布曲线随林龄增加由“高峰狭窄”(林木直径分布集中)状态逐渐向“低峰宽广”(林木直径分布分散)状态过渡;抚育间伐后,林木直径分布曲线均较抚育间伐前右偏加剧,峰度变高,径阶变窄,对称性下降;间伐强度越大,伐除的中小径阶树木越多,直径分布曲线较间伐前左侧截尾明显,峰度增高,径阶分布范围变小.低强度抚育间伐使得参数a值变大,b值变小,对参数c的影响不明显;高强度抚育间伐使得参数a的增量变大,b值变小,参数c值变小.参数预测联立方程组模型的拟合结果表明,参数b的预测模型拟合效果最好,R²>0.98;参数c预测模型拟合效果稍差,但R²>0.91;三阶段最小二乘法拟合结果与度量误差联立方程组方法区别不大,两种方法检验结果均较好,模型精度都>97%,拟合效率均>0.92.所建立的模型能够较好地模拟抚育间伐效应下落叶松人工林直径分布动态变化,为科学合理经营森林提供了依据.     

N fertilization affects on soil respiration, microbial biomass and root respiration in Larix gmelinii and Fraxinus mandshurica plantations in China

The response of belowground biological processes to soil N availability in Larix gmelinii (larch) and Fraxinus mandshurica (ash) plantations was studied. Soil and root respiration were measured with Li-Cor 6400 and gas-phase O₂ electrodes, respectively. Compared with the control, N fertilization induced the decreases of fine root biomass by 52% and 25%, and soil respiration by 30% and 24% in larch and ash plantations, respectively. The average soil microbial biomass C and N were decreased by 29% and 42% under larch stand and 39% and 47% under ash stand, respectively. While the fine root tissue N concentration under fertilized plots was higher 26% and 12% than that under control plots, respectively, the average fine root respiration rates were increased by 10% and 13% in larch and ash stands under fertilized plot, respectively. Soil respiration rates showed significantly positive exponential relationships with soil temperature, and a seasonal dynamic. These findings suggest that N fertilization can suppress fine root biomass at five branch orders (<2 mm in diameter), soil respiration, and soil microbial biomass C and N, and alter soil microbial communities in L. gmelinii and F. mandshurica plantations.     

Patterns of Trunk Diameter, Tree Height and Crown Depth in Crowded Abies Stands

The size structure of trees in crowded, even-aged Abies (fir)stands of ‘Shimagare’ or ‘wave-regenerated’sub-alpine forests is analyzed. Tree-height distributions showconsistently smaller variation and less positive skewness thanthe distributions of trunk diameter and crown depth (tree heightminus height of the lowest branch). This difference is associatedwith changes in the relationships between trunk diameter, treeheight and crown depth as stands age. These, in turn, resultfrom self-pruning of the lower foliage crown due to competitionfor light in crowded stands. Abies, diameter-height curve, competition, size distribution, stand development, tree geometry, wave-regeneration     

An Analysis of Vegetation Restoration on Opencast Oil Shale Mines in Estonia

We compared four types of 30‐year‐old forest stands growing on spoil of opencast oil shale mines in Estonia. The stand types were: (1) natural stands formed by spontaneous succession, and plantations of (2) Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine), (3) Betula pendula (silver birch), and (4) Alnus glutinosa (European black alder). In all stands we measured properties of the tree layer (species richness, stand density, and volume of growing stock), understory (density and species richness of shrubs and tree saplings), and ground vegetation (aboveground biomass, species richness, and species diversity). The tree layer was most diverse though sparse in the natural stands. Understory species richness per 100‐m² plot was highest in the natural stand, but total stand richness was equal in the natural and alder stands, which were higher than the birch and pine stands. The understory sapling density was lower than 50 saplings/100 m² in the plantations, while it varied between 50 and 180 saplings/100 m² in the natural stands. Growing stock volume was the least in natural stands and greatest in birch stands. The aboveground biomass of ground vegetation was highest in alder stands and lowest in the pine stands. We can conclude that spontaneous succession promotes establishment of diverse vegetation. In plantations the establishment of diverse ground vegetation depends on planted tree species.     

不同林龄短枝木麻黄小枝单宁含量及养分再吸收动态

通过对福建省惠安县不同林龄短枝木麻黄人工林不同发育阶段小枝单宁含量及氮磷再吸收率的研究,探讨了短枝木麻黄林分发育过程中的营养保存策略。结果表明,幼龄林(5年生)成熟小枝中的总酚(TP)、可溶性缩合单宁(ECT)总缩合单宁(TCT)含量及蛋白质结合能力(PPC)显著高于成熟林(21年生)和衰老林(38年生)。随着林分发育,成熟小枝中N含量显著升高,而P含量呈降低趋势。不同发育阶段林分成熟小枝中N:P比均大于20,且随着林龄的增加而升高。磷再吸收率(PRE)显著高于氮再吸收率(NRE),均以成熟林分最高。这表明短枝木麻黄小枝单宁含量与养分再吸收受林龄影响,其养分保存机制会随着林分生长发育的变化而进行调节。     

Potential contribution of the seed bank in coniferous plantations to the restoration of native deciduous forest vegetation

In this study, we compared the soil seed bank and current vegetation under coniferous plantations and adjacent native deciduous forests. The objective was to assess how much of the initial plant diversity is retained in such plantations, and the potential to restore this initial plant community from seed bank in case of reversion to broadleave stands. Four stands growing side by side and with different dominant species were selected at two locations (site of Haye: Quercus petraea, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies; site of La Petite-Pierre: Quercus petraea, Fagus sylvatica, Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies). In each stand, ground vegetation was surveyed and soil seed bank was sampled. Composition of ground flora and seed bank of stands were quite different: only 11 to 30 % of the species were in both the ground flora and the seed bank. Composition of the seed bank was mainly influenced by site location and sylvicultural practices such as the type of afforestation or the tree cover. Species richness of seed banks and vegetation were higher in the site of Haye than in the site of La Petite-Pierre. Seedling density strongly decreased with stand age. Whereas between 65 and 86 % of species found in the ground vegetation of native deciduous stand were also present in the understory or the seed bank of mature coniferous stands, this was only about 50 % in young coniferous stands. Species of deciduous stands which were absent from coniferous stands were typical of old forests. In contrast, species mainly found in the coniferous stands were often ruderal. In the studied areas, it would be possible to restore up to 86 % of the native deciduous forest vegetation, but some plant species typical of ancient forests may have disappeared during the coniferous stage.     

Above- and Below-Ground Carbon Stocks in an Indigenous Tree (Mytilaria laosensis) Plantation Chronosequence in Subtropical China

More than 60% of the total area of tree plantations in China is in subtropical, and over 70% of subtropical plantations consist of pure stands of coniferous species. Because of the poor ecosystem services provided by pure coniferous plantations and the ecological instability of these stands, a movement is under way to promote indigenous broadleaf plantation cultivation as a promising alternative. However, little is known about the carbon (C) stocks in indigenous broadleaf plantations and their dependence on stand age. Thus, we studied above- and below-ground biomass and C stocks in a chronosequence of Mytilaria laosensis plantations in subtropical China; stands were 7, 10, 18, 23, 29 and 33 years old. Our assessments included tree, shrub, herb and litter layers. We used plot-level inventories and destructive tree sampling to determine vegetation C stocks. We also measured soil C stocks by analyses of soil profiles to 100 cm depth. C stocks in the tree layer dominated the above-ground ecosystem C pool across the chronosequence. C stocks increased with age from 7 to 29 years and plateaued thereafter due to a reduction in tree growth rates. Minor C stocks were found in the shrub and herb layers of all six plantations and their temporal fluctuations were relatively small. C stocks in the litter and soil layers increased with stand age. Total above-ground ecosystem C also increased with stand age. Most increases in C stocks in below-ground and total ecosystems were attributable to increases in soil C content and tree biomass. Therefore, considerations of C sequestration potential in indigenous broadleaf plantations must take stand age into account.     

长白山东北红豆杉生境内针阔混交林直径结构分布研究

选择能够拟合长白山自然保护区东北红豆杉生境内针阔混交林的直径结构分布模型,为该区林分经营管理提供参考。以长白山自然保护区龙荒沟林场15块东北红豆杉林分内针阔混交林为研究对象,采用负指数函数和三参数Weibull分布函数2种直径分布模型拟合和χ^2检验,分析了15块样地的直径结构分布规律。15块样地的密度为400~981株·hm^-2,平均胸径变化范围为10.5~19.9 cm,各样地林分的直径分布的偏度均为正值,直径分布函数曲线均往左偏,除了9~11号样地的直径分布用三参数Weibull分布模型效果较好外,其他样地均适合用负指数模型拟合。两种模型均能有效描述直径结构分布规律,三参数Weibull分布模型用来拟合不规则直径分布时效果较好,而负指数分布模型拟合近似“反J”型曲线时效果好。该区东北红豆杉林分内针阔混交林直径结构分布不合理,应加强该林区经营技术措施。     

Microsite variation and climate result in stand dynamics variation in pristine Pinus sylvestris mires: Evidence from a stand structure study

Questions: How do climate conditions and the site's ecohy‐ drological properties affect the age and size structure of natural Pinus sylvestris stands on pristine boreal mires? How do the long‐term stand dynamics on mires proceed as stands age? Do the mire stands reach a balanced, old‐growth stage? Location: Boreal mire forests in southern and northern Finland. Methods: Tree age and diameter distributions were analysed in 52 stands in two climate areas and in two mire site types with different ecohydrological properties. Temporal stand dynamics were examined by (1) comparing the graphs of the stands’ mean tree ages by diameter at breast height (1.3 m) classes and (2) describing the changes in stand characteristics and stand age and size structures as a function of stand dominant age in a chronosequence. Results: In the south, the DBH distributions were mostly unimodal and bell‐shaped in both site type groups. Age distributions were multimodal and flat in fully‐stocked sites but more uneven in sparsely forested composite sites. In the north, both the age and size distributions were clearly uneven in both site type groups. Tree age and size variation increased with stand age, but levelled out in the long term. Particularly in the south, the abundance of small trees decreased as stand age increased. Conclusions: The pine stands on pristine boreal mires are more dynamic than anticipated and are generally not characterised by a balanced, self‐perpetuating structure. Their dynamics reflect differences in climate and ecohydrology: on stocked sites in favourable boreal conditions, the stands showed structures typically resultant of inter‐tree competition processes that control tree growth and regeneration, whereas in harsh boreal climates, the tree regeneration process is ongoing diversifying the stand structure.     

Belowground interspecific competition in mixed boreal forests: fine root and ectomycorrhiza characteristics along stand developmental stage and soil fertility gradients

We studied fine roots and ectomycorrhizas in relation to aboveground tree and stand characteristics in five mixed Betula pendula Roth, Picea abies (L.) H. Karst., and Pinus sylvestris L. stands in Southern Finland. The stands formed gradients of developmental stage (15-, 30-, and 50-year-old stands) in the stands of medium fertility, and of site fertility in the young stands (30-year-old fertile, medium fertile, and least fertile stands). The biomass of the external hyphae of ectomycorrhizas (ECM) was the highest, and the diversity of the fungal community the lowest, in the most fertile stand. The vertical distributions of fine roots of the three tree species were mostly overlapping, indicating high inter-specific belowground competition in the stands. We did not find any clear trends in the fine root biomass (FRB) or length across the stand developmental stages. The FRB of the conifers varied with site fertility, whereas in B. pendula it was almost constant. In contrast to the conifers, the specific root length (SRL) of B. pendula clearly increased from the most fertile to the least fertile stand. This indicates differences in the primary nutrient acquisition strategy between conifers and B. pendula.     

Understory vegetation in reclaimed and unreclaimed post-mining forest stands

In the Sokolov coal mining district of the Czech Republic, spoil heaps are reclaimed by forest plantations, which are planted directly into the rough substrate (alkaline tertiary clay). We compared the understory that spontaneously developed in seven types of forest stands: one type was unreclaimed stands (spontaneously overgrown by Betula pendula and Salix caprea) and six were plantations, each dominated by one tree genus (Alnus, Larix, Picea, Pinus, Quercus, and Tilia). The age of the stands ranged from 22 to 33 years. The cover of understory plant species in each stand was estimated, and 16 other environmental and community variables were quantified. The number of plant species was highest in Quercus, Larix, and unreclaimed stands, and was negatively correlated with forest canopy cover and with the cover of the understory dominant, the grass Calamagrostis epigejos. Understory composition differed considerably among the types of forest stands and was significantly explained by the measured environmental variables. Forward selection in redundancy analysis indicated that the most important variable driving understory composition was thickness of the fermentation layer, which is clearly connected with soil development. Environmental variables, including fermentation layer, were also affected by the type of forest stand. Therefore, all of the explained variability in understory composition could be attributed to the type of forest stand, which apparently affected the understory by its impact on soil formation. However, the most favorable soil conditions were not favorable for understory development, as they supported mainly C. epigejos, which suppressed other species. Our study also showed that even in the absence of reclamation measures, mining sites can be successfully restored due to spontaneous succession.     

三种直径分布拟合模型在长白落叶松林分的实际应用

基于长白落叶松中龄纯林样地调查,采用相对直径法、指数函数法和Weibull分布函数法三种常用方法拟合林分胸径分布规律.结果表明,三种方法均能有效描述林分直径分布规律,特别是指数函数简单易行、拟合精度高、适用性强,可视为长白落叶松中龄林直径分布拟合的最优模型.