Evidence of the establishment of Cotesia flavipes (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a parasitoid of cereal stemborers,and its host range expansion in Ethiopia

Three lepidopteran cereal stemborers, Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Crambidae), Busseola fusca Fuller, and Sesamia calamistis Hampson (Noctuidae) were collected from maize and sorghum in Ethiopia. The noctuid stemborers are indigenous to Africa while C. partellus is an introduced species from Asia. In 1999, the Asian stemborer parasitoid, Cotesia flavipes Cameron (Braconidae) was found to be widespread in Ethiopia, even though it had never been released in the country. In addition to attacking Chilo partellus, Cotesia flavipes was reared from B. fusca and S. calamistis. The origin of C. flavipes in Ethiopia may have been Somalia where it was released in 1997 near the border with eastern Ethiopia. Percent parasitism of borers by C. flavipes was higher in eastern Ethiopia than other surveyed regions, and parasitism was higher in 2000 than 1999. Parasitism was higher when cereals were intercropped with other plants and when wild grass hosts of stemborers were present.     

Species richness and parasitism in an assemblage of parasitoids attacking maize stem borers in coastal Kenya

Abstract. 1. Parasitoids were reared from four species of lepidopteran stem borer collected in maize in southern coastal Kenya from 1992 to 1999. The stem borers included three native species, Sesamia calamistis Hampson, Busseola fusca Fuller, and Chilo orichalcociliellus (Strand), and one exotic borer, Chilo partellus (Swinhoe). A total of 174 663 caterpillars was collected, of which 12 645 were parasitised.
2. Twenty-six primary parasitoid species were reared from the exotic borer, C. partellus , indicating a rapid accumulation of native parasitoids on the alien borer.
3. The three most abundant parasitoids were the larval parasitoids Cotesia sesamiae Cameron, Cotesia flavipes (Cameron), and the pupal parasitoid Pediobius furvus Gahan. The pupal parasitoid Dentichasmias busseolae Heinrich and the larval parasitoid Goniozus indicus Ashmead were also common. All used an ingress-and-sting method of attack.
4. Cotesia flavipes , introduced into Kenya in 1993, was found in all seasons from 1997 onwards, and has become the most abundant stem borer larval parasitoid in the area. A native congener, Cotesia sesamiae , appeared in all seasons from 1992 to 1999. Together, these two parasitoids accounted for 83.3% of the parasitised borers.
5. Thirty parasitoid species were recovered in Kilifi district, 27 in Kwale, and 15 in Taita Taveta. Parasitism was much greater in Taita Taveta district than in Kilifi or Kwale districts.     

Intrinsic competition between two oligophagous parasitoids, Sturmiopsis parasitica and Cotesia sesamiae, attacking the same life stages of lepidopteran cereal stemborers

Host acceptability and suitability of four cereal stemborers (Lepidoptera) commonly occurring in eastern Africa, Sesamia calamistis Hampson, Busseola fusca (Fuller) (both Noctuidae), Chilo partellus Swinhoe (Crambidae), and Eldana saccharina Walker (Pyralidae), for a West African strain of Sturmiopsis parasitica (Curran) (Diptera: Tachinidae) were assessed. In addition, the outcome of multi-parasitism was studied using a local strain of the endoparasitic Cotesia sesamiae Cameron (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) as the competing parasitoid. Various parasitism sequences and time intervals between parasitism were chosen. Parasitism increased linearly with the number of planidia used per larvae and was 80% with eight planidia. All species were accepted for larviposition, but suitability varied greatly; parasitism was 75.2, 37.9, 34.8, and 23.8% with S. calamistis , B. fusca , E. saccharina , and Ch. partellus , respectively. Sturmiopsis parasitica outcompeted Co. sesamiae irrespective of the time interval between parasitism, and whether it was the first or second species to parasitize. This was mainly due to a longer egg-to-cocoon development time and a high cocoon-to-adult mortality in Co. sesamiae . The implications of these results for expanding the geographic range of the West African strain of the tachinid in Africa are discussed.     

Wolbachia infection dynamics in experimental laboratory populations of Metaseiulus occidentalis

The present study examined the acceptability and suitability of Old World stemborers (Chilo partellus and C. orichalcociliellus) for the development of New World parasitoids (Apanteles deplanatus and A. minator) and New World stemborers (Diatraea saccharalis and D. grandiosella) for the development of Old World parasitoids (Cotesia sesamiae, C. flavipes and C. chilonis). Results revealed that acceptance and suitability were high in old associations. In new associations, parasitoids accepted about 60% of the new association hosts. In addition, 10 out of 17 new associations were successful. Apanteles species appeared to be more physiologically host specific than Cotesia species. For example, two of four new association hosts were accepted by A. deplanatus and only one (D. saccharalis) was partially suitable for progeny development. Among the Cotesia species, Cotesia flavipes appeared to have a wider host range than the two other species. It attacked all hosts offered and successfully parasitized all but one (D. grandiosella). Diatraea saccharalis was accepted and was a suitable host for the development of all parasitoid species tested, whereas D. grandiosella was unsuitable for the development of four out of five parasitoid species tested. No clear pattern was observed as behavioral acceptance did not always agree with the pattern of physiological suitability. Implications of these findings for importation biological control of stemborers are discussed.     

Resource allocation and bionomics of indigenous and exotic Cotesia (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) species reared on Sesamia calamistis

The braconid larval parasitoids Cotesia chilonis (Matsumura), C. flavipes Cameron and a strain of Cotesia sesamiae (Cameron) from coastal Kenya, reared at the International Centre of Insect Ecology and Physiology, were introduced at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture in the Republic of Benin for suitability testing on West African stemborers prior to release. C. chilonis was originally collected in Japan while C. flavipes was imported into Kenya from Pakistan. The host species used was the noctuid Sesamia calamistis (Hampson), the most important noctuid maize pest in the region. All three Cotesia species attacked and successfully developed in 2nd to 6th larval instar of S. calamistis but parasitoid-induced mortality was highest on second instars. On most instars, C. sesamiae and C. flavipes produced larger broods than C. chilonis. Larvae parasitized by C. sesamiae developed to the 6th instar and attained an average larval weight of 353 mg, while larvae parasitized by C. chilonis only molted to the 4th instar and attained a maximum weight of 107 mg. The lower developmental threshold estimated from the non-linear regression of temperature on developmental rate was 15.9, 15.9 and 14.9 degrees C for C. chilonis, C. sesamiae and C. flavipes, respectively, while the maximum temperature was 34.2, 35.2 and 33.8 degrees C, respectively. A maximum of four ovipositions were observed per female during a life span ranging from 1.3 days for C. chilonis and C. flavipes to 1.6 days for C. sesamiae. The largest adult progeny, intrinsic rate of increase and net reproductive rates were recorded at 28 degrees C for all species. However, across temperatures, C. flavipes yielded the highest number of offspring, followed by C. sesamiae and C. chilonis. The sex ratios did not vary significantly with species and temperature. Thus, the reproductive potentials of C. sesamiae and C. flavipes were greater than that of C. chilonis.     

Acceptance and suitability of four lepidopteran stemborers for the development of the pupal parasitoid Xanthopimpla stemmator (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae)

Xanthopimpla stemmator (Thunberg), a solitary endoparasitoid of lepidopteran stemborer pupae, was recently imported into East Africa as a candidate biological control agent of gramineous stemborers. Suitability of Busseola fusca Fuller, Chilo partellus (Swinhoe), Eldana saccharina (Walker) and Sesamia calamistis Hampson, for the development of X. stemmator was studied in the laboratory. One- to 6-day-old laboratory reared pupae of the four stemborer species were exposed to naïve X. stemmator females. All host pupae and ages were acceptable for oviposition. The parasitoids inflicted multiple probe wounds on 67.8% of pupae exposed. B. fusca, C. partellus and S. calamistis were equally suitable with 56.4, 59.4 and 52.3%, respectively, of probed pupae leading to emergence of adult parasitoids. E. saccharina was less suitable with only 22.6% of probed pupae producing parasitoids. Emergence of parasitoids did not differ significantly across the six pupal ages for B. fusca and S. calamistis, but varied for C. partellus and E. saccharina. No parasitoids emerged from 6-day-old E. saccharina pupae. Realized fecundity of females reared on the four stemborer pupae showed that fewer progeny were produced by females emerging from E. saccharina than females reared on the other three stemborer species. Eldana saccharina may be a poor host for X. stemmator in Kenya, but this parasitoid is a potential candidate for biological control of B. fusca, C. partellus and S. calamistis.     

Intraspecific and Interspecific Competition Between Cotesia flavipes and Cotesia sesamiae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), Gregarious Larval Endoparasitoids of Lepidopteran Stemborers

Super and multiple parasitism of Chilo partellus (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Sesamia calamistis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) by Cotesia flavipes Cameron and Cotesia sesamiae (Cameron) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) were investigated in the laboratory. Progeny production of Co. flavipes increased as a result of increasing the number of ovipositions, from one to three per one Ch. partellus host larva, then decreased as a result of four and five ovipositions per larva. Cocoon weight, sex ratio and emergence of the parasitoid progeny were not affected by superparasitism. Low progeny production of Co. sesamiae and poor survival of Ch. partellus host larvae were found as a result of superparasitism. When S. calamistis was the host, the duration of immature stages of Co. flavipes , parasitoid emergence, progeny production and sex ratio were not affected by superparasitism, but cocoon weight, adult longevity and the potential fecundity of adult females decreased. Superparasitism of S. calamistis by Co. sesamiae did not affect emergence, longevity or sex ratio of adult progeny of the parasitoid, but prolonged immature development, lowered cocoon weight and decreased potential fecundity of adult female progeny. Co. flavipes out-competed Co. sesamiae when Ch. partellus was parasitized by both species. The potential for local displacement of Co. sesamiae by Co. flavipes in areas dominated by Ch. partellus in East Africa is discussed.     

Differential expression of the CrV1 haemocyte inactivation-associated polydnavirus gene in the African maize stem borer Busseola fusca (Fuller) parasitized by two biotypes of the endoparasitoid Cotesia sesamiae (Cameron)

Polydnaviruses are rarely studied for their natural variation in immune suppressive abilities. The polydnavirus harboring braconid Cotesia sesamiae, a widespread endoparasitoid of Busseola fusca and Sesamia calamistis in sub-Saharan Africa exists as two biotypes. In Kenya, the western biotype completes development in B. fusca larvae. However, eggs of the coastal C. sesamiae are encapsulated in this host and ultimately, no parasitoids emerge from parasitized B. fusca larvae. Both biotypes develop successfully in S. calamistis larvae. Encapsulation activity by B. fusca larvae towards eggs of the avirulent C. sesamiae was detectable six hours post-parasitization. The differences in encapsulation of virulent and avirulent strains were associated with differences in nucleotide sequences and expression of a CrV1 polydnavirus (PDV) gene, which is associated with haemocyte inactivation in the Cotesia rubecula/Pieris rapae system. CrV1 expression was faint or absent in fat body and haemolymph samples from B. fusca parasitized by the avirulent C. sesamiae, which exhibited encapsulation of eggs. Expression was high in fat body and haemolymph samples from both B. fusca and S. calamistis larvae parasitized by the virulent C. sesamiae, encapsulation in the former peaking at the same time points as CrV1 expression in the latter. Non synonymous difference in CrV1 gene sequences between virulent and avirulent wasp suggests that variations in B. fusca parasitism by C. sesamiae may be due to qualitative differences in CrV1-haemocyte interactions.     

The Influence of Egg Parasitoids Belonging to the Telenomus busseolae (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) Species Complex on Sesamia calamistis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Populations in Maize Fields in Southern Benin

During the second cropping season of 1992, maize fields in southern Benin were examined twice at the pre-tasselling stage, to assess the abundance of eggs of Sesamia calamistis Hampson (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and egg parasitism by Telenomus busseolae Gahan (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae). They were also examined at harvest, to investigate the impact of egg parasitism early in the season on S. calamistis populations, and thus plant growth. S. calamistis eggs were found in 84.0% of the fields and on 16.8% of the plants. The parasitoid was present across the entire survey area, with the rate of egg parasitism averaging 76.4%. On average, 84.1% of the egg masses/field were parasitized, indicating that the parasitoid had a good capacity for searching. The relationship between parasitization rates and egg batch size was best described by a quadratic function, with maximum parasitism of about 95% between 1 and 25 eggs/batch. In a multiple regression analysis involving infestation levels at harvest, and soil and parasitoid variables, the T. busseolae parasitization rate was one of the major factors influencing S. calamistis densities. The yield loss due to S. calamistis decreased with increasing egg parasitism.     

Long-term seasonal fluctuations of lepidopteran cereal stemborers and their natural enemies on maize and wild host plants in southern Benin

Abstract  The seasonal fluctuation of lepidopteran cereal stemborers on maize and wild host plants (i.e., grasses and a few sedges) was investigated in southern Benin from 1988 to 1998 by time series analysis and repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). In addition, a walk-in light trap was used to study the flight behavior of adult moths. On both cereals and grasses, the noctuid Sesamia calamistis was the predominant species, followed by the pyralid Eldana saccharina . The noctuid Busseola fusca was rare on both maize and wild host plants. In general, pest populations increased during the course of the year to reach peak densities during the second short rainy season, and then crashed to close to zero during the dry season. On wild host plants, egg masses and other immature stages were collected throughout the year but they were higher on wild grasses than maize during the off-season. Thus wild host plants can be considered as refuge for both borers and natural enemies during the off-season, when maize is not available. However, only four out of the eleven wild host species played a discernable role. S. calamistis egg densities appeared to be influenced by density-dependent factors, suggesting an effect of natural enemies. Temperature and rainfall had a negative effect on egg abundance. Larval parasitism by a Kenyan strain of the braconid Cotesia sesamiae , which was released in southern Benin in the early 1990s, and by the tachinid Sturmiopsis parasitica varied between seasons and years but there were no discernable patterns. For both parasitoids and borer host species, parasitism was positively correlated with trap catches of adult moths. The recovery of C. sesamiae during a 2-year period suggests that the parasitoid has established its population in southern Benin.     

Multiple Parasitism by Cotesia sesamiae and Cotesia flavipes (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) on Busseola fusca (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Busseola fusca (Fuller) is one of the most important pest of cereals in sub-Saharan Africa. Cotesia sesamiae (Cameron) is the predominant parasitoid attacking B. fusca larvae in many parts of Africa. An exotic parasitoid, Cotesia flavipes Cameron, was introduced into Kenya in 1993 for the control of Chilo partellus (Swinhoe). Laboratory studies indicated that although C. flavipes would search for, and attack B. fusca , it was not able to complete its development in this host. The aim of the present study was to investigate the outcome of multiple parasitism of B. fusca by the two Cotesia species. The study showed that when both parasitoid species stung a B. fusca larva at the same time, both parasitoids emerged from more than half of the host larvae, C. flavipes alone emerged from 17%, and C. sesamiae alone emerged from 9%. When the larvae were parasitized by C. sesamiae first, and then 2 h later by C. flavipes , and vice versa, most of the progeny were C. flavipes . However, when B. fusca larvae were stung by C. sesamiae three days before oviposition by C. flavipes , significantly more C. sesamiae emerged from the larvae. When C. flavipes oviposited first, no larvae produced C. flavipes only. The interaction of parasitoids and the host immune system, and the implications of these results for the biological control of stem borers in East Africa are discussed.     

Suitability ofBusseola fuscaandSesamia calamistis(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) for the Development of Two Populations ofCotesia sesamiae(Hymenoptera: Braconidae) in Kenya

The suitability ofSesamia calamistisHampson andBusseola fusca(Fuller) for the development of two geographical populations ofCotesia sesamiae(Cameron) was examined in the laboratory. One population of the parasitoid was collected from the coast of Kenya and the other from the inland. Both populations of the parasitoid could develop onS. calamistis.OnB. fusca,the inland population ofC. sesamiaewas able to develop, while the population from the coastal area of Kenya was encapsulated. Mating studies revealed that the two parasitoid populations were partially reproductively isolated. Unidirectional incompatibility, possibly caused by theWolbachiainfection, was observed when males from the infected coastal population were mated with females from the uninfected inland population.     

Lepidopteran cereal stemborers and associated natural enemies on maize and wild grass hosts in Cameroon

Abstract:  In Cameroon, the noctuid Busseola fusca is the most important pest of maize. The braconid Cotesia sesamiae , which is the most common larval parasitoid of noctuid stemborers in eastern Africa, was absent on B. fusca attacking maize. Thus, it is planned to introduce several strains of the parasitoid from Kenya. Pre-release surveys were undertaken in major maize growing areas to catalogue stemborer species, and larval and pupal parasitoids on maize and four wild host plant species. On maize, B. fusca was the predominant borer in all ecozones except for the lowland coastal forest, usually accounting for 60–99%, followed by the pyralid Eldana saccharina in the forest zone and the crambid Chilo sp. in the mid-altitudes. Contrary to what was reported before, the noctuid Poeonoma serrata – and not B. fusca – was the predominant borer on elephant grass, constituting 70–96% of all borers. On wild sorghum in the forest zone, the noctuid Sesamia poephaga was the most abundant species, while on Panicum sp., Chilo sp. predominated. On Setaria megaphylla in the forest zone, Chilo sp. was the most abundant species followed by Busseola quadrata . Busseola fusca was scarce on all wild grass species, indicating that previous reports on the predominance of this pest species on wild host plants were the result of misidentifications. Three tachinid and 16 hymenopteran parasitoids were obtained, most of them from B. fusca and P. serrata , on maize and Pennisetum purpureum respectively. C. sesamiae was scarce and never recovered from B. fusca on maize. In view of the new findings, acceptability and suitability studies involving the different stemborer species identified from wild plant hosts are required to determine if they will form a reproductive sink or perennate C. sesamiae populations during the off-season when maize is scarce and B. fusca is diapausing.     

TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT AND SURVIVAL OF RICE STEMBORERS IN LABORATORY CONDITIONS

Abstract  The effect of seven constant temperatures from 10 to 40°C (10, 15, 20, 25 30, 35 and 40°C) on the development of eggs, larvae and pupae of rice stemborers viz., Chilo polychrysa (Meyrick), C. suppressalis (Walker), C. partellus (Swinhoe), Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker), S. innotata (Walker) and Sesamia inferens (Walker) were studied. The mean developmental period among constant temperatures (in days) of egg, larva and pupa of six borers differed significantly ( P < 0.0001). The mean percent of development per day of egg, larva and pupa of all borers gradually increased with the increase of constant temperatures. The total developmental period was inversely decreased with the increase of constant temperatures. The lower threshold temperature was found between 10–15°Cand higher threshold temperature between 35–40°C, where no development took place. The mean developmental zero was 8.57±1.71, 7.70±1.01, 8.56±3.25, 10.19±2.19, 8.64±2.68 and 7.91±0.82 for egg, larva and pupa of above-mentioned borers respectively. The total thermal constant of egg, larva and pupa was 705.56, 725.32, 703.30, 556.59, 655.34 and 837.95 degree- days for C. polychrysa, C. suppressalis, C. partellus, S. incertulas, S. innotata and S. inferens respectively. The degree- days required for oviposition of female moths of the six borers was calculated as 99.06, 90.85, 99.29, 75.16, 92.25 and 80.41 respectively. The total degree- days required completing a generation was 804.62, 816.17, 802.59, 631.75, 648.84 and 918.36 respectively.     

Seasonal Fluctuations of Noctuid Stemborer Egg Parasitism in Southern Benin with Special Reference to Sesamia calamistis Hampson (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Telenomus spp. (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) on Maize

Parasitism of noctuid stemborer eggs was assessed in monthly surveys in maize fields in southern Benin, from May 1995 to October 1996, and on alternative hosts, i.e. wild grasses, during the dry season from November 1995 to February 1996. Sesamia calamistis was the most prevalent stemborer species, accounting for 98% of the larvae identified from subsamples reared on ear pieces. Egg batch densities ranged between 0.02-0.15 per plant, with lowest densities found during high rainfall periods. 77% of all egg batches were found to be parasitized The egg parasitoids were the scelionids Telenomus busseolae, T. isis , and the trichogrammatid Lathromeris ovicida , accounting for 55.6, 41.6 and 2.8% of total counts, respectively. Parasitism increased in the course of the cropping season and reached peaks of 92 and 86% during the second growing season of 1995 and 1996, respectively. This coincides with the time when farmers have planted a second crop and during a stage when the plants were most attractive and susceptible to S. calamistis attacks. During the dry season, relatively high parasitism was found on maize and wild grasses in inland valleys, and it was concluded that those habitats play an important role in stabilizing the system for both the pest and its natural enemies. As a result, in the Dahomey Gap, which includes parts of Benin, Togo and Ghana, S. calamistis is usually not of economic importance. Although T. busseolae is ubiquitous in Africa, T. isis was only reported from West Africa, including Cameroon. It is recommended that the geographic range of T. isis should be expanded and include East and Southern Africa, where another host, Busseola fusca , is the most important noctuid stemborer pest on cereals.     

The role of wild grasses in the management of lepidopterous stem-borers on maize in the humid tropics of western Africa

Sites in the humid forest of Cameroon and the derived savanna of Benin were selected to evaluate the effect of planting border rows of wild host plants on lepidopterous stem-borer infestations and on maize yield. Grass species were chosen that in surveys and greenhouse trials were highly attractive to ovipositing female moths but with offspring mortality of close to 100%, thus acting as trap plants. In Cameroon, elephant grass Pennisetum purpureum Moench significantly lowered infestations of Busseola fusca (Fuller), Sesamia calamistis Hampson and Eldana saccharina Walker and increased yields of maize though the differences were not significant during all three cropping seasons. In 1998 in Benin, the only grass tested, Pennisetum polystachion L., significantly increased parasitism of mainly S. calamistis eggs by Telenomus spp. and larvae by Cotesia sesamiae Cameron and reduced numbers of the cob-borer Mussidia nigrivenella Ragonot. In 1999, three grass species; P. polystachion, Sorghum arundinaceum (Desv.) Stapf and Panicum maximum Jacq. were tested. Panicum maximum was the most efficient species for suppressing S. calamistis and M. nigrivenella infestations and enhancing egg and larval parasitism. In the Benin trials, with the exception of M. nigrivenella damage to cobs, the grass species tested had no beneficial effect on yield because pest densities were too low and also rodent damage to maize was enhanced with grasses in the vicinity of the crop. By contrast, stand losses due to Fusarium verticillioides Sacc. (Nirenberg), were significantly reduced by border rows of grasses.     

The effect of nitrogen fertilizer application to maize and sorghum on the bionomics of Chilo partellus (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) and the performance of its larval parasitoid Cotesia flavipes (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)

Laboratory and field trials were conducted to evaluate the effect of plant species (maize, sorghum), plant age (young, middle, old) and four different nitrogen fertilization levels (N0-N3) on the bionomics of the invasive crambid Chilo partellus and the performance of its braconid larval parasitoid Cotesia flavipes. Plant N varied significantly between N0 and N1-N3, but the differences among the latter were not significant. Intrinsic rates of increase and net-reproductive rates of C. partellus followed the same trends: they were lowest with N0 and similar among the other treatments. On maize only, mortality of C. partellus and parasitism by C. flavipes tended to decrease with age of the plant while the percentage of borers reaching adulthood (i.e. pupation) increased. Borer mortality and parasitism was lower and pupation higher on sorghum than on maize. On both host plants, percent dry matter content of frass, which could affect ingress of the parasitoid into the borer tunnel, did not vary with nitrogen level but varied with age of the host plants: on maize, it was highest on young plants and on sorghum on old plants. Tunnels were shorter on young maize and sorghum plants; longer tunnels on older plants indicated compensatory feeding by the larva as a result of lower nutritive value of the food source. Consequently, larval weight was lower on older than younger plants. The level of nitrogen fertilization had no effect on food conversion efficiency of C. partellus. Nitrogen did not affect number of C. flavipes progeny while egg load of progeny increased significantly with nitrogen level, on both plant species. Differences in egg load between sorghum and maize were mostly not significant. It was concluded that on depleted soils only, an increase in nitrogen via mulching, rotation with a leguminous crop or fertilization would increase survival of C. partellus on both maize and sorghum and an increase in acreage of maize and in application of nitrogen fertilizer in an area would also increase the parasitism of C. flavipes.     

Host Suitability of Four Cereal Stem Borers (Lepidoptera: Crambidae, Noctuidae) for Different Geographic Populations of Cotesia sesamiae (Cameron) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) in Kenya

This study focused on the suitability of four species of cereal stem borers for the development of five geographic populations of Cotesia sesamiae (Cameron). C. sesamiae, an indigenous larval parasitoid of gramineous stem borers, is widespread in Africa. Four stem borers, Chilo partellus (Swinhoe), Chilo orichalcociliellus Strand (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), Busseola fusca Fuller, and Sesamia calamistis Hampson (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), were offered to C. sesamiae for oviposition. Parasitoid individuals originated from five locations in Kenya. Biological parameters such as developmental time, percentage parasitism, progeny production, mortality of immature parasitoids, and proportion of female progeny were compared across host species. The two populations from western Kenya developed well on B. fusca. However, populations from the coast and the Eastern Province could not successfully parasitize B. fusca. With the exception of B. fusca, the percentage of hosts successfully parasitized by the different C. sesamiae populations was not different. The size of the host appeared to be an important factor influencing the development and reproductive potential of the parasitoid. We conclude that the different parasitoid populations were adapted to location-specific characteristics. Parasitoid–host compatibility must be evaluated before release for better establishment and colonization.     

Impact of Vairimorpha sp. (Microsporidia: Burnellidae) on Trichogramma chilonis (Hymenoptera, Trichogrammatidae), a hymenopteran parasitoid of the cabbage moth, Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera, Yponomeutidae).

A multi-generation mass breeding colony of the cabbage moth, Plutella xylostella, was found to be infected with a microsporidium, Vairimorpha sp., which is passed transovarially between generations. The microsporidian infection had little impact on the fitness of this lepidopteran pest. However, when Trichogramma chilonis parasitized such infected host eggs, the offspring of this parasitoid species suffered from severe deficiencies. Microsporidian spores, ingested by parasitoid larvae together with the host egg nutrients, gave rise to stages which developed in various tissues of the parasitoid, such as the flight muscle and the nervous system. This infection resulted in a significantly increased rate of metamorphosis failure (related to host age) and reduced longevity and reproductive performance of the parasitoids. There are two main consequences arising from our findings if T. chilonis is to be used in an integrated control strategy against P. xylostella: (1) T. chilonis must be raised on Vairimorpha-free host eggs to receive viable and efficaceous parasitoids for release and (2) if natural populations of the cabbage moth in cruciferous crops are infected with Vairimorpha to a significant extent, the parasitoid must be released repeatedly within infested crop areas.     

Quantification and development of teratocytes in novel-association host-parasitoid combinations

We studied the development of teratocytes derived from two congeneric gregarious endoparasitic species, Cotesia chilonis and C. flavipes, parasitizing two congeneric novel hosts, Diatraea saccharalis and D. grandiosella. The host-parasitoid combinations studied allowed us to investigate relationships between host suitability and teratocyte development. D. saccharalis was a suitable host for both parasitoids, whereas D. grandiosella was suitable for C. chilonis development but often encapsulated C. flavipes progeny. Encapsulation of C. flavipes by D. grandiosella commenced around the time of parasitoid egg hatch, when teratocytes were released into the host's hemolymph. The gregarious parasitoids studied here released about 200 teratocytes per egg. Both absolute and normalized (teratocytes/parasitoid) numbers decreased over time. D. saccharalis supported more C. flavipes-derived teratocytes than D. grandiosella, possibly because of the unsuitability of the latter host. On intermediate assay days the number of C. flavipes-derived teratocytes was greater than for C. chilonis. However, C. chilonis-derived teratocytes grew larger than C. flavipes. Teratocytes in all host-parasitoid combinations doubled in size during parasitoid development. Teratocytes generally grew larger in D. grandiosella, which was a less suitable host.