Using patterns of distribution and diversity of Kenyan birds to select and prioritize areas for conservation

Patterns and environmental correlates of species distributions and richness are identified for Kenyan birds at a quarter degree-square scale. This information is used together with iterative complementarity analyses, which employ species richness, taxonomic dispersion and range-restrictedness, to identify priority areas for possible conservation attention. Bird species apparently not conserved by existing protected areas in Kenya are identified. Six avifaunal zones (and one transitional zone) are distinguished based on distributions of suites of bird species. Variation in biotope diversity (the number of forest and aquatic systems) accounts for 79% of the observed variation in Kenyan bird species richness. Although both rainfall and altitudinal range are significantly correlated with species richness, they only explain an additional 3% of the observed variation. The priority areas identified are situated mainly within highlands and coastal lowlands. Although few priority areas are identified in northern Kenya, this region also constitutes a priority, as it contains a suite of xeric species with habitats that are not represented elsewhere in Kenya. The papyrus yellow warbler, Chloropeta gracilirostris, William's bush lark, Mirafra williamsi, white-winged dove, Streptopelia reichenowi, and Jubaland weaver, Ploceus dichrocephalus, are identified as endemics or near-endemics that are probably not adequately conserved in Kenya at present.     

Socio-economic and ecological prospects for multiple use of protected areas in Africa

Largely triggered by the Bali debate, conservation literature over the last decade has seen increasing realization of man's responsibility in ensuring survival of the world's protected areas. In African terms, there has been an overwhelming number of pilot projects which have the people label. Whereas this trend has been ecouraging, the overall conservation picture has not been very bright as the wildlife resources have continued to dwindle under surmounting human pressure. The problem does not seem to be awareness of the necessity for protected areas any more but rather whether it is feasible under the present prevailing circumstances.     

The impact of armed conflict on protected-area efficacy in Central Africa

What determines the vulnerability of protected areas, a fundamental component of biodiversity conservation, to political instability and warfare? We investigated the efficacy of park protection at Garamba National Park (Democratic Republic of Congo) before, during and after a period of armed conflict. Previous analysis has shown that bushmeat hunting in the park increased fivefold during the conflict, but then declined, in conjunction with changes in the sociopolitical structures (social institutions) that controlled the local bushmeat trade. We used park patrol records to investigate whether these changes were facilitated by a disruption to anti-poaching patrols. Contrary to expectation, anti-poaching patrols remained frequent during the conflict (as bushmeat offtake increased) and decreased afterwards (when bushmeat hunting also declined). These results indicate that bushmeat extraction was determined primarily by the social institutions. Although we found a demonstrable effect of anti-poaching patrols on hunting pressure, even a fourfold increase in patrol frequency would have been insufficient to cope with wartime poaching levels. Thus, anti-poaching patrols alone may not always be the most cost-effective means of managing protected areas, and protected-area efficacy might be enhanced by also working with those institutions that already play a role in regulating local natural-resource use.     

On the fraction of habitat allocated to marine reserves

The case for marine reserves is strengthening, and both deterministic and stochastic calculations show that fisheries management using reserves may achieve harvests comparable with management without reserves. Thus, depending upon the metric used, reserves need not disadvantage harvest. Reserves provide a buffer that increases the chances of sustainability of the stock, and thus the fishery. In this paper, I develop methods (deterministic and stochastic) that allow one to determine how much habitat needs to be set aside as reserve, once societal decisions concerning the goals of reserves are made. The answer to the question: "how much habitat needs to be allocated to reserves" is not a simple single number. Rather, it is a procedure that can be employed once biological, operational and social information are provided. The methods also apply to reserves used to aid stock recovery.     

Density and potential utilisation of medicinal grassland plants from Abe Bailey Nature Reserve, South Africa

The Abe Bailey Nature Reserve, South Africa has been identified as a potential community resource reserve compatible with biodiversity conservation. As part of the planning and public participation phase this study investigated the potential for sustainably harvesting medicinal plants. Medicinal plant use data on local species, parts used and harvesting techniques, in collaboration with neighbouring traditional healers were collected. A census of these plants was conducted in the reserve and frequency, density and abundance were calculated. A medicinal plant rating system for assessing conservation priorities was used to combine both social-qualitative and ecological-quantitative data. Five medicinal species suitable for high impact harvesting were identified. Thirty-four species have potential to be set up as harvesting trials to determine sustainable quotas. Thirty-one medicinal species including Boophane disticha, Dicoma anomala, Eucomis autumnalis, Hypoxis hemerocallidea, Pentanisia prunelloides and Indigofera daleoides are considered to be site-specific sensitive species and should not be harvested from the reserve. Following this research an on site nursery has been started at the reserve. A multi-pronged approach involving harvesting trials, propagation and plant rescue from developments to cope with escalating demand and dwindling natural populations needs to be implemented.     

Conflicting priorities in site management in England

There are two main designations of protected areas in the UK-nature reserves, of various kinds, and special nature conservation areas, known as Sites of Special Scientific Interest. General approaches to choices of priorities and the resolution of conflict in the management of these areas are described and difficulties identified. Similar problems arise when considering the wider role of protected areas in national nature conservation policies, e.g. biodiversity targets and European Habitats and Species Directive objectives. Because choices and priorities stem from underlying values, the public must be involved in the identification of objectives for both protected areas and the rest of the land surface. The Natural Areas programme being developed by English Nature provides a mechanism whereby people may be involved in characterising the wildlife of their area and in identifying targets for its maintenance and enhancement. The use of land and the management practices associated with it are the major factors influencing the nature conservation value of protected areas and their wider context.English Nature (the Nature Conservancy Council for England) is the statutory advisor to the government on nature conservation in England and promotes the conservation of England's wildlife and natural features.     

Is prescribed fire a suitable management tool to reduce shrub encroachment in palm savannas?

Shrub encroachment in grasslands is a worldwide problem that has many ecological consequences, transforming previously open environments into dense forests. Disruption of natural fire regimes is one of the main causes of shrub encroachment, and the use of prescribed fire is a common strategy used to restore these ecosystems. In this study, we provide information about how a palm tree savanna under a process of shrub encroachment responds to the reintroduction of fire. We describe the effects of a first fire event on vegetation composition and structure using an experimental approach. We examine a species‐specific response to the fire. After one prescribed fire event applied to four study areas of 16 ha each, we analyzed the change in vegetation physiognomy and composition in burned and control plots for 1 year. Low‐intensity prescribed fire decreased height and cover of most shrub species and increased herbaceous vegetation cover over time. We classified shrub and herbaceous species response to fire according to the time they became present and their phenological characteristics. Our results can help stakeholders to determine if prescribed fire is helpful at reducing shrub encroachment in short term in similar ecosystems, considering how plant community responds to the reintroduction of fire after decades of fire suppression.     

Steps to a sustainable Northern Australia

Summary Northern Australia's globally significant savannas and rivers face major threats, from cattle to weeds to land clearing to climate change. In the face of imperatives and pressures such as reducing carbon emissions, nature conservation, alleviating Indigenous disadvantage, the resources boom and global food security, how should development be managed to protect its globally significant ecosystems? Nine planks in a ‘Sustainable Northern Australia’ agenda are proposed: (i) enhance investment in mitigating pervasive landscape threats; (ii) strengthen support for Indigenous Caring for Country activities and incorporation of Traditional Ecological Knowledge into land management; (iii) align and strengthen invasive species control and management; (iv) facilitate new economic development pathways focused on sustainability; (v) build climate resilience by maintaining and enhancing landscape‐scale connectivity; (vi) protect free‐flowing rivers from dams and major water resource development; (vii) establish and effectively manage a large interconnected network of protected areas; (viii) develop cooperative governance arrangements; and (ix) enhance knowledge generation and research and monitoring capacity.     

中国生物多样性保护的变革性转变及路径

全球正在经历第六次物种大灭绝。为了应对生物多样性丧失速率日益加快的严峻挑战, 《生物多样性公约》第十届缔约方大会通过了《生物多样性战略计划》(2011-2020年)及20项爱知生物多样性目标。然而, 2019年IPBES全球评估报告表明, 大部分爱知目标可能无法在2020年实现, 因此, 自然保护需要变革性转变。中国虽然在生物多样性保护方面取得了巨大成就, 提出了系统完整的生态文明制度及建立“以国家公园为主体的自然保护地体系”的目标, 并通过绿盾行动和环保督察提升了生物多样性保护的重要性, 陆地自然保护地覆盖率也已达到18%, 但仍未有效遏制生物多样性下降的趋势, 物种濒危程度持续加剧。尽管生态文明一系列改革已经做出了变革性转变, 中央层面大力推行生物多样性“主流化”的相关政策, 通过机构改革初步解决了自然保护地“九龙治水”的问题, 在国土空间规划和生态保护红线划定中强调了生物多样性保护的重要性, 但是, 生物多样性保护仍然缺乏系统性的解决策略, 需要在不同层面进一步落实“主流化”, 建立完整的法律体系和统一规范高效的保护机制, 保障保护资金, 明确生物多样性在生产、生活空间中的地位, 打通自然保护成果与经济利益的转化渠道。因此, 中国的生物多样性保护应当借助生态文明建设的历史性机遇, 在保护意识、空间布局和保护行动3个方面充分实现变革性的转变, 借助五位一体总体布局, 采用系统化的解决方法, 进一步整合法律、行政、市场、技术和社会等五方面力量, 提出具体的实现路径, 实现保护意识主流化、保护利用统筹化和保护行动全民化等三方面变革性的转变, 形成高效一体化的机制, 以实现“人与自然和谐相处”的生物多样性保护理想状态。     

Russia's protected areas: a survey and identification of development problems

Natural habitat preservation, i.e. the creation and management of Protected Natural Areas (PNAs), is one of the most important forms of biodiversity conservation. The most widespread types of PNAs in Russia are Zakazniks (State Nature Refuges) and Natural Monuments, but unlike Zapovedniks (State Nature Reserves) these types of Russian PNAs are little-known to foreign ecologists. Thus the main attention of this article is given to the problems of Zakazniks and Natural Monuments while other types of Russian PNAs are mentioned briefly. In many regions of Russia, Zakazniks and Natural Monuments are considered to be the core components for the regional protection of biodiversity. Non-Governmental Organizations play an important role in the creation and management of PNAs. The recent sudden change of circumstances in Russia have given rise to many problems which threaten the existence of Zakazniks and Natural Monuments. Possible means of saving these PNAs include: (i) promoting the interest of local people in protecting biodiversity; and (ii) supporting local authorities, and public initiatives and regional programmes in the creation of local PNA networks.     

Parasites in marine protected areas: success and specificity of monogeneans

The effect of a marine protected area on the Lamellodiscus spp. monogenean community was tested by comparing the communities of parasites of Diplodus sargus inside and outside of the area. A total of 104 D. sargus were dissected harbouring 1280 monogeneans from the genus Lamellodiscus and belonging to 11 species. No modification in the global parasite community linked with the protection of the host populations was revealed. The most abundant and less specific parasite species, Lamellodiscus elegans , however, increased its abundance in the protected area. A significant relationship was found between parasite host range and the percentage of infected hosts. A significant relationship also occurred between epidemiological and genetic distances for the parasite species found. The results are discussed in term of parasite success and specificity and the importance of taking into account parasitism in the biological conservation of hosts.     

How large do reserve networks need to be?

Reserve networks are essential for the long-term persistence of biodiversity. To fulfil this goal, they need not only to represent all species to be conserved but also to be sufficiently large to ensure species' persistence over time. An extensive literature exists on the required size of individual reserves, but to date there has been little investigation regarding the appropriate size of entire networks. The IUCN's proposal that 10% of each nation be reserved is often presented as a desirable target, but concerns have been raised that this is insufficient and is dictated primarily by considerations of feasibility and politics.
We found that the minimum percentage of area needed to represent all species within a region increases with the number of targeted species, the size of selection units, and the level of species' endemism. This has important implications for conservation planning. First, no single universal target is appropriate, as ecosystems or nations with higher diversity and/or higher levels of endemism require substantially larger fractions of their areas to be protected. Second, a minimum conservation network sufficient to capture the diversity of vertebrates is not expected to be effective for biodiversity in general. Third, the 10% target proposed by the IUCN is likely to be wholly insufficient, and much larger fractions of area are estimated to be needed, especially in tropical regions.