Ambulacral growth allometry in edrioasteroids: functional surface‐volume change in ontogeny and phylogeny

McKinney, M. L. & Sumrall, C. D. 2010: Ambulacral growth allometry in edrioasteroids: functional surface‐volume change in ontogeny and phylogeny. Lethaia, Vol. 44, pp. 102–108. Most organisms do not maintain geometric similarity as they grow, in large part because of surface‐volume interactions. Because respiratory and food‐acquiring organs are dependent on surface area, which increases more slowly than volume, organisms have evolved many strategies to increase the efficiency of, and/or the functional surface areas of these organs. Here, we report some preliminary results comparing area of the feeding apparatus (ambulacra) versus the volume of the theca for a suite of isorophid edrioasteroid species at various ontogenetic sizes. Regression of log (ambulacral area) on log (thecal volume) indicates a strongly constrained allometric pattern whereby the ontogenies of all measured species fall on or near the same line (r² = 0.962, n = 55), with a slope (k) = 0.654 (± 0.018). This slope and associated 0.05 standard error (0.618–0.690) is within the bounds of that expected from increasing surface area to keep pace with the metabolic demands of increasing thecal size. This allometric value is also comparable to the size scaling of metabolism and respiratory and feeding surfaces in many living and a few fossil invertebrates (k ～ 0.5–0.9). The edrioasteroid species analysed show a very wide variety of changes in ambulacral length, width and sinuosity, documenting many different patterns for achieving the same goal of increasing surface area to keep pace with volume increase. There is no evidence of increasing feeding efficiency. □Edrioasteroid, allometry, ambulacrum, surface‐volume, echinoderm.     

Thecal designs in isorophinid edrioasteroids

A study of functional morphology in the edrioasteroid suborder Isorophina reveals three major thecal designs: domal, pyrgate, and clavate. Pyrgate forms are characterized by specialized morphologic features that facilitate extension of the theca well above the substrate and contraction of the theca to a low, streamlined, domal profile. Domal forms have a low, domal thecal profile capable of little shape change. Clavate forms are characterized by modifications to the pyrgate theca to facilitate higher-level suspension feeding. Pyrgate species are generalized edrioasteroids that inhabited a variety of nearshore open-marine environments. Domal species are small specialized edrioasteroids that inhabited shallow-marine to intertidal environments. Clavate species inhabited offshore, open-marine environments. The size reduction of the peripheral rim and the modifications to the pedunculate zone are adaptations allowing clavate edrioasteroids to compete for small attachment sites while maintaining the ability to extend the theca for higher-level suspension feeding and respiration. A phylogenetic analysis of well-known isorophinid edrioasteroids to determine the relationships between the three designs indicates that domal species are a monophyletic group within the Isorophinidae, clavate species are a monophyletic group within the Agelacrinitidae, and isorophinid pyrgate species are a paraphyletic group ancestral to both domal and clavate forms. □ Edrioasteroidea, Echinodermata, functional morphology, phylogeny.     

Arms versus brachioles: Morphogenetic basis of similarity and differences in food-gathering appendages of pelmatozoan echinoderms

The similarity in the skeleton model of the brachiolar food-gathering system of Blastozoa and the arm system of Crinozoa, including the apical growth with enantomorphous displacement of skeletal ele-ments, is explained by the primary organizing role of the radial ambulacral canals, which have the same branching model for ambulacral tentacles. The difference in the positions of brachioles and arms relative to the theca (exothecal and endothecal) is associated with the formation of the primary ambulacral tentacles directly on the body surface of the majority of Blastozoa, particularly, the closed vestibular cavity of crinoids. The supporting skeleton of brachioles arose as a branch of the plates covering the floor of the ambulacrum, if they were present, or formed similarly as a new formation outside the theca. The supporting skeleton of arms, brachials, developed as a result of the serial growth of plates positioned radially at the boundary of the aboral skeleton and tegmen formed due to the appearance of the vestibulum. The hypothesis of the inductive role of hydrocoel and its radial ambulacral appendages, which organize the arrangement of skeletal elements in the morphogenesis of echinoderms, enables the refinement of the principle of skeleton division into the axial and extraxial parts. The axial skeleton has a developmental model formed under the control of the radial ambu-lacral canals. Remaining skeleton is extraxial, subdivided into the symmetrized part arranged under direct or indirect organizing effect of the hydrocoel and unregulated, nonsymmetrized part, which is not connected initially with the influence of the hydrocoel.     

Oral Region Homologies in Paleozoic Crinoids and Other Plesiomorphic Pentaradial Echinoderms

The phylogenetic relationships between major groups of plesiomorphic pentaradial echinoderms, the Paleozoic crinoids, blastozoans, and edrioasteroids, are poorly understood because of a lack of widely recognized homologies. Here, we present newly recognized oral region homologies, based on the Universal Elemental Homology model for skeletal plates, in a wide range of fossil taxa. The oral region of echinoderms is mainly composed of the axial, or ambulacral, skeleton, which apparently evolved more slowly than the extraxial skeleton that forms the majority of the body. Recent phylogenetic hypotheses have focused on characters of the extraxial skeleton, which may have evolved too rapidly to preserve obvious homologies across all these groups. The axial skeleton conserved homologous suites of characters shared between various edrioasteroids and specific blastozoans, and between other blastozoans and crinoids. Although individual plates can be inferred as homologous, no directly overlapping suites of characters are shared between edrioasteroids and crinoids. Six different systems of mouth (peristome) plate organization (Peristomial Border Systems) are defined. These include four different systems based on the arrangement of the interradially-positioned oral plates and their peristomial cover plates, where PBS A1 occurs only in plesiomorphic edrioasteroids, PBS A2 occurs in plesiomorphic edrioasteroids and blastozoans, and PBS A3 and PBS A4 occur in blastozoans and crinoids. The other two systems have radially-positioned uniserial oral frame plates in construction of the mouth frame. PBS B1 has both orals and uniserial oral frame plates and occurs in edrioasterid and possibly edrioblastoid edrioasteroids, whereas PBS B2 has exclusively uniserial oral frame plates and is found in isorophid edrioasteroids and imbricate and gogiid blastozoans. These different types of mouth frame construction offer potential synapomorphies to aid in parsimony-based phylogenetics for exploring branching order among stem groups on the echinoderm tree of life.     

Ordovician Paracrinoids from the Baltic: Key Problems of Comparative Morphology of Pelmatozoan Echinoderms

The erect feeding appendages of paracrinoids, brachioles of typical blastozoans and arms of crinoids are morphologically similar in their terminal growth, biserial cover plates, and pinnulation. This is attributed to the inducing effect of the radial ambulacral canal on their growth mode. The uniserial brachioles of Laurentian paracrinoids are homologous to the biserial brachioles of the Baltic Achradocystites and Heckerites, and those of other blastozoans. Based on this assumption, the two Baltic genera, which have a brachiole system plesiomorphic for paracrinoids, and a similar morphology of the theca, are assigned to this class. Brachiolars in brachioles are a new development, homologous to the flooring plates of the food groove and, where present, are the continuations of these plates beyond the theca. The uniserial brachioles of Laurentian paracrinoids evolved from the biserial brachioles as a result of a gradual shift of brachiolars in the neighboring rows and their subsequent fusion in pairs. Brachials in crinoidal arms are a new development that evolved as distal serial growth of radial plates under the induced influence of the incipient radial canals emerging from the closed vestibular cavity, which was an ontogenetic innovation in crinoids. The transformation of a nonorganized small-plated theca into a large-plated, and completely or partly symmetrized theca, or vice versa is possible and results from accelerated or retarded growth of some plate generation in relation to the growth rate of the theca.     

THE EARLY RADIATION AND PHYLOGENY OF ECHINODERMS

1. Living echinoderms are characterized by an extensive water vascular system developed from the larval left hydrocoel, a complex, multi-plated endoskeleton with stereom structure, and pentamery. Fossil evidence shows that stereom evolved before pentamery, but both were acquired during the Lower Cambrian. 2. Cladistic analysis of Lower Cambrian genera reveals very few characters in common between carpoids and true echinoderms, and that the split between them was the first fundamental evolutionary dichotomy within the Dexiothetica. 3. Helicoplacoids are stem group echinoderms with spiral plating and three ambulacra arranged radially around a lateral mouth. They are the most primitive echinoderms and the first to show a radial arrangement of the water vascular and ambulacral systems. Unlike later echinoderms, their skeleton shows no dorsal/ventral (aboral/oral) differentiation. They were probably sedentary suspension feeders. 4. Camptostroma is the most primitive known pentaradiate echinoderm and, in our view, possibly a common ancestor of all living groups. It had a short conical dorsal (aboral) surface with imbricate plating, a ridged lateral wall and a slightly domed ventral (oral) surface with five curved ambulacra in a 2-1-2 arrangement inherited from the triradiate pattern of the helicoplacoids. Interambulacral areas bore epispires and the CD interambulacrum contained the anus, hydropore and/or gonopore. All parts of the theca had plates in at least two layers. 5. All other echinoderms belong to one of two monophyletic subphyla, the Pelmatozoa and the Eleutherozoa. 6. Stromatocystites is the earliest known eleutherozoan and differs from Camptostroma in having a test with only one layer of plates and having lost the dorsal elongation. In Stromatocystites the dorsal surface is flat and the plating tesselate. Stromatocystites was an unattached, low-level suspension feeder. 7. The lepidocystoids are the earliest known pelmatozoans. They differ from Camptostroma in having an attached dorsal stalk which retained the primitive imbricate plating, and by developing erect feeding structures along the ambulacra. In Kinzercystis, the ambulacra are confined to the thecal surface and erect, biserial brachioles arise alternately on either side. Lepidocystis has a similar arrangement except that, the distal part of each ambulacrum extends beyond the edge of the theca as a free arm. 8. Pelmatozoans diverged more or less immediately into crinoids, with multiple free arms composed of uniserial plates, and cystoids sensu lato, which retained brachioles. Gogia (Lower to Middle Cambrian) is the most primitive known cystoid and differs from Kinzercystis principally in having all plating tesselate, while Echmatocrinus (Middle Cambrian) is the most primitive known crinoid and differs from Lepidocystis in lacking brachioles and in having more than five free arms with uniserial plates. 9. Post Lower Cambrian differentiation of pelmatozoan groups proceeded rapidly, exploiting the primitive suspension-feeding mode of life. Maximum morphological diversity was reached in the Ordovician, but thereafter crinoids progressively displaced cystoid groups and reached their peak diversity during the Carboniferous. The eleutherozoans were slower to diversify, but by the Arenig the earliest ‘sea-stars’ (in reality, advanced members of the eleutherozoan stem group) had reversed their living orientation and had begun to exploit a deposit-feeding mode of life. These in turn led to the ophiuroids, echinoids and holothuroids. 10. The basic echinoderm ambulacrum was already present in the helicoplacoids. It had biserial, alternate flooring plates and complexly plated sheets of cover plates on either side. The radial water vessel lay in the floor of the ambulacrum, external to the body cavity, and gave rise ventrally to short, lateral branches (fore-runners of tube feet) that were used to open the cover plate sheets, and dorsally was connected to internal compensation sacs which acted as fluid reservoirs (and were preadapted for a role in gaseous exchange). Plating on the cover plate sheets was organized and reflected the positions of the lateral branches from the radial water vessel. In Camptostroma, the cover plate sheets had biserially aligned rows of cover plates associated with the lateral branches. 11. Brachioles arose by extension of the lateral branches of the radial water vessel and associated serially aligned cover plates found in Camptostroma. They bear a single alternate series of cover plates. In Lepidocystis the ambulacra extended beyond the edge of the oral surface as true arms. Brachial plates of arms are homologues of primary ambulacral flooring plates, and arms bear multiple series of cover plates. Uniserial ambulacral plating is a derived condition and evolved independently in crinoids, paracrinoids and isorophid edrioasteroids. Pinnules in crinoids arose independently in inadunates and camerates by a progressively more unequal branching of the arms. Thus all parts of the subvective system in crinoids are internally homologous, whereas in cystoids, brachioles and arms (or ambulacra) are not homologous structures. 12. The position of the hydropore is the best reference point in orientating echinoderms. Carpenter's system of identifying ambulacra by letters, arranged clock-wise in oral view with the A ambulacrum opposite the hydropore, is consistent in all echinoderm classes. In all Lower Cambrian pentaradiate echinoderms the anus, gonopore and hydropore lie in the CD interambulacrum and this is accepted as the primitive arrangement. In helicoplacoids we tentatively suggest that the A ambulacrum spiralled down from the mouth while the two ambulacra that spiralled up represent the B + C and D + E ambulacra combined. 13. The pelmatozoan stem arose from a polyplated stalk, via a meric stem to a true column with holomeric (single piece) columnals. This happened independently in the crinoids and the cystoids. 14. Our analysis of echinoderm phylogeny leads us to recommend the following changes to the higher level classification of echinoderms: The phylum Echinodermata includes only those groups with radial symmetry superimposed upon a fundamental larval asymmetry. It has a stem group that contains the triradiate helicoplacoids and a crown group to which all other (pentaradiate) echinoderms belong. The crown group contains two monophyletic subphyla, the Pelmatozoa and the Eleutherozoa, and the Pelmatozoa contains two superclasses, the Crinoidea which are extant and the Cystoidea, which are extinct.     

贵州寒武纪始海百合类萼部形态定量评价及其意义

始海百合类是贵州寒武纪杷榔动物群和凯里生物群代表性化石类群。产出杷榔动物群和凯里生物群的杷榔组和凯里组主要由灰绿色、灰色的泥、页岩组成,始海百合类化石保存在2个组中上部的泥、页岩中,化石保存好,丰度高,是陆棚斜坡较深水环境生态类群的典型代表。本文基于来自杷榔组的36块Guizhoueocrinus yui,29块Protogloboeocrinus yini标本,和凯里组的20块Sinoeocrinus lui,20块Globoeocrinus globulus标本,采用几何形态测量方法和传统形态测量方法,对每块标本萼部选定了4个界标点(landmark),进行数理统计和几何形态的定量分析。发现寒武纪始海百合类的萼部尺寸上差异较小,在形态上,杷榔组的Protogloboeocrinus yini和Guizhoueocrinus yui萼形相似,均偏细长形,而凯里组的Sinoeocrinus lui和Globoeocrinus globulus萼形差异较大,口部区域宽度均出现增大,萼茎连接处宽度则出现变大和变小两种趋势。结果说明:同一生态环境下寒武纪早期的Guizhoueocrinus yui,和中期的Sinoeocrinus lui的萼在演化上具连续性,细长的萼与长茎能够让始海百合个体更有效捕食上部水域的食物,而寒武纪早期的Protogloboeocrinus yini和中期的Globoeocrinus globulus的萼在形态上具有演化上的连续性。球状的萼配合粗短的茎,可以增强始海百合个体的稳定性,以适应更强的水动力环境,表明出现了生态位的扩张。     

MORPHOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF THE MARINE BENTHIC DINOFLAGELLATE SCRIPPSIELLA SUBSALSA (DINOPHYCEAE)1

The thecal surface morphology of Scrippsiella subsalsa (Ostenfeld) Steidinger et Balech was examined using the scanning electron microscope. This species is distinguished by a number of morphological characteristics. Apical plate 1′ is wide, asymmetric, and pentagonal, and it ends at the anterior margin of the cingulum. Intercalary plates 2a and 3a are separated by apical plate 3′. The apical pore complex includes a large P_o plate with a raised dome at the center and a deep canal plate with thickened margins at plates 2′, 3′, and 4′. The intercalary bands are wide and deeply striated. The cingulum is deep, formed by six cingular plates; its surface is transversely striated and aligned with a row of minute pores. The cingular list continues around postcingular plate 1′” to form a sulcal list. The sulcal list is a flexible ribbon with a rounded tip that protrudes posteriorly, partially covering the sulcal plates. The hypotheca is lobed, and the antapical plates are irregularly shaped and wide in antapical view. The thecal surface is vermiculate to reticulate. A comparison in morphology and ecology is presented between S. subsalsa and other known Scrippsiella species.     

Epizoan encrustation on Marsupites testudinarius – additional argument favoring an epifaunal mode of life of uintacrinoids?

Uintacrinoids (Uintacrinoidea Zittel) are among the best-known Late Cretaceous crinoids, but owing to their unusual morphology and widespread distribution their mode of life has become a subject of much discussion. Of several competing hypotheses, nektonic, pseudoplanktonic, hemipelagic, semi-infaunal and epibenthic lifestyles have been suggested. Recent study synthesizing and extending previous data has shown that these crinoids were epibenthic, holding their arms vertically for feeding. However, evidence supporting a rheophilic epibenthic model over an alternative rheophobic semi-infaunal model is still limited. Here we report epizoans, mostly represented by serpulids and bryozoans, encrusting thecal plates of Marsupites testudinarius from the Lägerdorf in Germany. Although a definitive interpretation whether recorded infestations occurred syn vivo or post mortem is not certain, it is remarkable that all epizoans (or their traces) are attached to the convex side (latera) of well-preserved isolated plates displaying no signs of reworking. Furthermore, a bryozoan colony crossing plate boundaries has been also found on the surface of a sub-articulated theca suggesting that it may have been colonised syn vivo. Recorded epibiotic associations, whether syn vivo or post-mortem, must have developed prior to burial of the specimens, above the surface of sea floor, and thus provide another argument against rheophobic semi-infaunal mode of life of uintacrinoids.     

The skeletal structure of Desmophyllum cristagalli: the use of deep-water corals in sclerochronology

Skeletal banding has been found in the deep-water scleractinian coral Desmophyllum cristagalli , an important animal in studies of climate change. This banding pattern sheds light on skeletogenesis and suggests methods by which the record of climate change contained within the coral skeletons may be interpreted. A central wall built of trabeculae forms the interior of the septa and rings the theca. Lamellae form a sheath over the trabecular frame, showing continuity from thecal edge to septum. Skeletal bands are added by the tissue layer, which overlaps and seals the internal coral and upper portion of the outer theca. Truncated inner bands on the outer theca indicate a pattern of skeletal deposition and dissolution dependent on the presence or absence of the live tissue layer. A long-term record will be difficult to collect from D. cristagalli since lamellae are less than 10 μm thick and band position is unpredictable. Density banding in shallow-water coral skeletons has long been recognized as a valuable paleo-oceanographic tool, and deep-water corals are now being used to reconstruct deep-ocean environments. Pattern of skeletal growth must be carefully considered if deep-water corals are to be used as proxy climate recorders.     

Reinterpretation of thecal plate homology and phylogeny in the Class Crinoidea

Since the Class Crinoidea was erected in 1821 there has been a consistent failure to resolve the phylogeny of this major group on even the coarsest scale. Reinterpretation of crinoid thecal plate homology, using the orientation of the stem rather than the position of the arms as a reference point for the theca, indicates that two-circlet (monocyclic) crinoids may be derived from three-circlet (dicyclic) taxa by the loss of any one of the three plate circlets in the theca rather than just the lowest circlet as has been assumed previously. Cladistic analysis utilizing this new homology, which is supported by evidence from ontogeny and from the position of other plates in the theca, suggests that Aethocrinus is sister group to all other crinoids and that the Cladida are primitive sister group to both the Disparida and Camerata. The Disparida, Hybocrinida and Perittocrinidae together represent a monophyletic clade. The Camerata also are monophyletic, but the orders Monobathrida and Diplobathrida can no longer be considered to represent natural taxa, with two-circlet camerates probably having evolved more than once. This reinterpretation of thecal plate homology sheds new light on the relationships between the major crinoid groups and the pattern of early crinoid evolution. □ Echinodermata, Crinoidea, homology, phylogeny.     

Localization of an activin/activin receptor system in the porcine ovary.

The aim of this study was to locate a possible activin/activin receptor system within porcine ovaries containing functional corpora lutea. In situ hybridization was used to assess the gene expression of beta(A)- and beta(B)-activin subunits, and immunohistochemical studies were done to detect activin-A protein and activin receptor type II. mRNA expression of the beta(A)- and beta(B)-activin subunits was found in the granulosa from the unilaminar follicle stage onward, in the developing thecal layer of multilaminar and small antral follicles, in the theca interna of mid-sized antral follicles, in corpora lutea, and in the ovarian surface epithelium. Immunoreactive activin A protein could be detected at the same ovarian sites, but in thecal tissue of small antral follicles only. This protein was also demonstrated at the peripheral zone of oocytes from multilaminar and antral follicles. A positive immunoreaction for activin receptor was found in granulosa cells from multilaminar and older follicles and in oocytes from the earliest stages of follicular development onward. In late multilaminar follicles and in antral follicles, the oolemma was stained. Except for small antral follicles, a positive activin receptor immunoreaction was absent in the follicular theca. Activin receptor immunoreaction was furthermore present in corpora lutea and in the ovarian surface epithelium. It is concluded that, within porcine ovaries containing functional corpora lutea, an activin/activin receptor system is present in all intact follicles, the corpora lutea and the surface epithelium. Within follicles, granulosa and theca cells are the main sites of activin synthesis, while oocytes and granulosa cells are the main activin binding sites.     

Functional morphology of the theca interna of the vesicular follicle in human ovary]

A study of histological serial sections of human ovaries and histochemical reactions established that several cell types differentiate in the theca interna during the formation and development of tertiary follicles (2nd growth period). This leads, in turn, to triple-layering of the theca interna in follicles of the 2nd resting period. The inner thecal layer consists of fusiform cells from the basement membrane, which are apposed to the membrana granulosa and show a strong positive reaction to alkaline phosphatases. A tropic function for the follicular epithelium must be assigned to this layer. The middle layer consists of epitheloid thecal cells, which show a strong positive reaction to 3beta-ol-steroid hydrogenase. These represent the estrogen glands of the follicle. The outer layer of the theca interna, whose transition to the theca externa is indistinct, also has fusiform cells, which are available as reserve material for the differentiation of further epitheloid thecal cells to pre-ovulatory follicles in later periods of development.     

Apelin and APJ receptor expression in granulosa and theca cells during different stages of follicular development in the bovine ovary: Involvement of apoptosis and hormonal regulation

In the mammalian ovary, the microvasculature in the thecal layer of follicles is associated with follicular development. Apelin and its receptor, APJ, are expressed in the tissues and organs which include the vasculature. The aims of the present study were to examine the mRNA expression of apelin and the APJ receptor in granulosa cells and theca tissue of bovine follicles and the effects of steroid hormone and gonadotrophins on the expression of these genes in cultured granulosa cells and theca cells. The expression of apelin mRNA was not found in the granulosa cells of bovine follicles. The expression of the APJ gene was increased in granulosa cells of estrogen-inactive dominant follicles. The expression of apelin mRNA increased in theca tissues of estrogen-inactive dominant follicles. APJ expression in theca tissues increased with follicle growth. Progesterone stimulated the expression of APJ mRNA in the cultured granulosa cells. FSH stimulated the expression of APJ mRNA in the cultured granulosa cells. LH induced the expression of apelin and APJ receptor mRNAs in cultured theca cells. Taken together, our data indicate that the APJ receptor in granulosa cells and both apelin and the APJ receptor in theca tissues are expressed in bovine ovary, that APJ in granulosa cells may be involved in the appearance of the cell apoptosis, and that LH stimulates the expression of apelin and APJ genes in theca cells.     

A unique edrioasteroid from the upper Middle Cambrian of Iran,its phylogenetic implications and paleoecology

One of the earliest isorophid edrioasteroids from the upper Middle Cambrian-lower Upper Cambrian (upper part of Series 3-lower part of the Furongian Series) of northern Iran is described. It has unusual branched ambulacra, which extend beyond the theca almost to the marginal rim. These unusual features reflect the latent possibility of appearance of separated from the theca and even branching food-gathering appendages, such as arms in crinoids and brachials in blastozoans, in common ancestor of all radially symmetrical echinoderms.     

Morphology and phylogenetic interpretation of a new Cambrian edrioasteroid (Echinodermata) from Spain

Abstract: The edrioasteroid, Aragocystites belli gen. nov. sp. nov. from the middle Cambrian Murero Formation of Spain, is described based on a small number of very well‐preserved specimens. Important anatomical characteristics include star‐shaped and pseudoclavate theca, rare or absent epispires, well‐developed interradially positioned oral plates and several unorganized cover plates associated with each widely exposed flooring plate. A phylogenetic analysis including several Cambro–Ordovician species shows it is more derived than Stromatocystites and Totiglobus but is a sister group to a clade comprising Cambraster and Edriodiscus. Ontogenetic observations based on juveniles of 5 mm in diameter suggest that this species changed thecal shape markedly during growth. A. belli gen. nov. sp. nov. probably lived in quiet environments where it attached directly to the sea floor on stabilized substrates.     

A new cornute (Homalozoa: Echinodermata) from the uppermost Middle Cambrian (stage 3, Furongian) from Northern Iran: Its systematics and functional morphology

A new rare nearly bilaterally symmetrical cornute from the Mila Formation, upper Middle–early Late Cambrian (Series 3, Furongian) from northern Iran is described, Persiacarpos jefferiesi gen. and sp. nov. It resembles Phyllocystis blayaci, but differs by the presence of the distal protrusion of M5 on the posterior end of the theca and by various sizes and patterns of the slightly bulging centralia. The animal appears to be mobile and probably moved in a tadpole-like wriggling manner. It may have fed with ambulacral cover plates open, using cover plates and/or podia for food capture, while the animal was in motion.     

Smooth muscle cells in the walls of ovarian follicles in the Japanese quail

Summary The walls of pre-ovulatory follicles of the Japanese quail were examined at the ultrastructural level for the presence of cells displaying the typical morphological features of smooth muscle cells. These characteristics were found in the cells of the chordae, the tunica albuginea, and the theca externa. Small, elongated cells, containing microfilaments, were observed in the theca of prelampbrush follicles localized in the ovarian cortex. These thecal cells were considered as the putative precursors of the thecal smooth muscle cells of the pre-ovulatory follicle. The difference between the smooth muscle cells of the pre-ovulatory follicle and those in the wall of the most recent post-ovulatory follicle is the contracted state of the latter, which is most evident in the cells of the theca externa. It can be concluded that the cells of the theca externa are smooth muscle cells which are mainly contracted during the ovulatory process. A comparison was made with other vertebrate species.     

Mast cell histamine and ovarian follicular growth in the lizard Anolis carolinensis.

The hypothesis is proposed that histamine released from mast cells in the theca of ovarian follicles increases thecal hyperemia and vessel permeability, and thus plays a role in follicular growth in Anolis carolinensis. Mast cells are present in the stroma and theca, and the number of thecal mast cells increases as follicles grow. The levels of histamine in follicular walls varies with follicular size. Histamine causes vasodilatation of thecal vessels. Antihistamine blocks the effects of histamine and, when given alone, stimulates vasoconstriction. Antihistamine also blocks estradiol-induced growth of large follicles. These findings are consistent with the above hypothesis.