Living in the suburbs: Space use by vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) in an eco‐estate,South Africa

We examined vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) space use using GPS/UHF telemetry data from 10 vervet monkeys across six troops over 9 months within a 420 ha suburban eco‐estate. We documented a mean home range of 0.99 km² (95% MCP) and 1.07 km² (95% KDE) for females (n = 6), 1 km² (95% MCP) and 1.50 km² (95% KDE) for males (n = 4) and 0.87 km² (95% MCP) and 1.12 km² (95% KDE) for troops (n = 6), respectively, indicating that males and larger troops had larger home ranges. These relatively small home ranges included shared territorial boundaries and high home range overlap. Vervet monkey movements indicated higher morning activity levels, and habitat selection indicated significantly more use of golf course, urban residential and forest, thicket and woodland areas, and avoidance of wetland, grassland and shrub, and urban built‐up areas. Our results suggest that modified habitat use by vervet monkeys is a consequence of behavioural facilitation to access highly available food resources, thereby facilitating their persistence in green spaces in urban areas of South Africa. Conflict management is dependent on the conservation of sufficient natural habitats and food resources, to minimise their dependence on anthropogenic supplementary food resources and consequently reduce human–monkey conflict.     

Space use and territoriality of wolverines (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Gulo gulo</Emphasis>) in northern Scandinavia

Space use and territoriality influence population structure and dynamics and is therefore an important aspect in understanding the ecology of animals. We investigated spatial and temporal space use of wolverines (Gulo gulo) in northern Scandinavia. We estimated home ranges of 24 radio-marked individuals (17 females and seven males). Male home ranges (mean 669 km²; SE = 211) were significantly larger than female home ranges (mean 170 km²; Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney; P = 0.001) and encompassed or included parts of up to five different females. Home range sizes of reproducing (170 km²; SE = 51) and barren (171 km²; SE = 63) adult females did not differ. Wolverines in Scandinavia exhibit intrasexual territoriality, with male home ranges totally exclusive and female home ranges either exclusive or with little home range overlap. Overlap between wolverine territories is most likely explained by intrasexual tolerance and kinship.     

Updated geographic range maps for giraffe,Giraffa spp., throughout sub‐Saharan Africa,and implications of changing distributions for conservation

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Variation in monthly sizes of home-ranges of Hooded Vultures Necrosyrtes monachus in western,eastern and southern Africa

Tracking studies are often used to inform conservation plans and actions. However, species have frequently only been tracked in one or a few localities, whereas space use can be remarkably flexible, especially in long-lived species with advanced learning abilities. We assessed variability in space use in the Critically Endangered Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus by pooling movement data from three populations across the species’ sub-Saharan range (in South Africa, Botswana, Ethiopia, Kenya, The Gambia and Mozambique). We estimated minimum convex polygons and kernel density estimators (KDEs) and compared monthly home-range sizes between breeding and non-breeding seasons, age-classes and subspecies, accounting for uneven sampling within groups. Mean (± sd) monthly home-range sizes (95% KDEs) for adult Hooded Vultures from southern (12 453 ± 21 188 km², n = 82) and eastern Africa (3735 ± 3652 km², n = 24) were 103 and 31 times larger than those of conspecifics from western Africa (121 ± 98 km², n = 48). This may relate partly to subspecific differences, and individuals with small home-ranges in western Africa and Ethiopia were trapped in urban environments. Regional variation in space use by Hooded Vultures may be linked to flexibility in feeding behaviour (degree of commensalism) which may arise in response to resource availability and persecution in different areas. Age-class also affected monthly home-range sizes, with immature birds generally having larger monthly home-range size estimates than adults. Our results highlight the flexibility of Hooded Vultures in terms of their home-range sizes and suggest that home-range sizes differ between populations and individuals, depending on the extent of human commensalism. Our results also reaffirm the importance of international co-operation in conservation efforts aimed at protecting this wide-ranging, non-migratory species.     

Do fences constrain predator movements on an evolutionary scale? Home range, food intake and movement patterns of large predators reintroduced to Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa

Fencing conservation areas is ubiquitous in South Africa, however, the impact of these on predator ecology has not been tested. We used relationships between prey abundance and predator space use to create equations to predict the home range size of lions Panthera leo and leopards Panthera pardus. We then successfully tested these predictions using published data (Phinda, Makalali) and home range estimates from radio collared individuals reintroduced to Addo Elephant National Park. Spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta ranges also seem food dependent. Lion home ranges in Addo (114 ± 5 km²) required 180 fixes to be accurately estimated, spotted hyaena ranges (91 ± 10 km²) required 200 fixes, and the solitary leopard had 295 fixes for a range of 38 km². There were no sexual differences in home range sizes of lions or hyaenas. The daily food intake rate of lions, measured during continuous follows, was 9.8 kg per female equivalent unit. Dominant male lions (14.3 km for 8.3 kg) traveled furthest but obtained the least amount of food per day compared to subordinate males (8.9 km for 16.0 kg) and females (5.8 km for 17.9 kg). Subordinate males traveled the fastest and during the day, to avoid competition and harassment from the dominant males. From an evolutionary viewpoint, the use of fences for conservation has not affected the natural behaviour of the predators as they still conform to predictions derived from unfenced reserves; that is, prey abundance is the key factor in determining space use of large predators.     

High site fidelity and restricted ranging patterns in southern Australian bottlenose dolphins

Information on site fidelity and ranging patterns of wild animals is critical to understand how they use their environment and guide conservation and management strategies. Delphinids show a wide variety of site fidelity and ranging patterns. Between September 2013 and October 2015, we used boat‐based surveys, photographic identification, biopsy sampling, clustering analysis, and geographic information systems to determine the site‐fidelity patterns and representative ranges of southern Australian bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops cf. australis) inhabiting the inner area of Coffin Bay, a highly productive inverse estuary located within Thorny Passage Marine Park, South Australia. Agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC) of individuals’ site‐fidelity index and sighting rates indicated that the majority of dolphins within the inner area of Coffin Bay are “regular residents” (n = 125), followed by “occasional residents” (n = 28), and “occasional visitors” (n = 26). The low standard distance deviation indicated that resident dolphins remained close to their main center of use (range = 0.7–4.7 km, X ± SD = 2.3 ± 0.9 km). Representative ranges of resident dolphins were small (range = 3.9–33.5 km², X ± SD = 15.2 ± 6.8 km²), with no significant differences between males and females (Kruskal–Wallis, χ² = 0.426, p = .808). The representative range of 56% of the resident dolphins was restricted to a particular bay within the study area. The strong site fidelity and restricted ranging patterns among individuals could be linked to the high population density of this species in the inner area of Coffin Bay, coupled with differences in social structure and feeding habits. Our results emphasize the importance of productive habitats as a major factor driving site fidelity and restricted movement patterns in highly mobile marine mammals and the high conservation value of the inner area of Coffin Bay for southern Australian bottlenose dolphins.     

Spatial ecology and conservation of the microendemic ovenbird Cipo Cinclodes (Cinclodes espinhacensis) from the Brazilian highlands

Birds in the genus Cinclodes are habitat specialists, with most restricted to the highlands of South America. The recently described Cipo Cinclodes (C. espinhacensis) is isolated in the southern Espinhaço Range of Brazil and is considered Endangered in Brazil and Near Threatened by the IUCN, but as a subspecies of Long‐tailed Cinclodes (C. pabsti). We examined the population and spatial ecology of Cipo Cinclodes at two geographic scales to improve our understanding of their basic biology and conservation status. We monitored 30 birds at Serra do Breu and found relatively large home ranges (mean = 9.3 ha), a density of paired adults of 0.09/ha, a male‐skewed adult sex ratio (males/total adults = 0.57) due to territories occupied by unpaired males, and long‐term site fidelity. Cipo Cinclodes used all habitat types available in our study area, including rocky outcrops, grasslands, and riparian areas, but habitat selection analyses revealed the importance of riparian areas for foraging and rocky outcrops for nesting. At the species distribution scale, we compiled known and novel recorded occurrence points and used them to calculate the extent of occurrence (EOO) and the area of occupancy (AOO). We used a Maxent species distribution model to generate a binary map to estimate upper limits for EOO (EOO around the model predicted area) and AOO (comprised by the model predicted area within the EOO). We obtained 41 locations, resulting in an EOO of 890.7 km² (up to 1748.7 km²) and an AOO of 100 km² (up to 327.5 km²). The global population is estimated to be between 880 and 2882 birds, which is concerning because small populations are at risk of extinction due to demographic stochasticity, genetic drift, and the interaction of these factors. As such, our results support the designation of Cipo Cinclodes as Endangered on the Brazilian red list.     

Seasonal home ranges and fidelity to breeding sites among ringed seals

Population structure and patterns of habitat use among ringed seals (Phoca hispida) are poorly known, in part because seasonal movements have not been adequately documented. We monitored the movements of 98 ringed seals in the Beaufort and Chukchi seas between 1990 and 2006 using three forms of telemetry. In the winter—spring period (when the seals were occupying shorefast ice), we used radio and ultra-sonic tags to track movements above and below the ice, respectively. We used satellite-linked transmitters in summer and fall (when the seals ranged away from their winter sites) to track at-sea movements. In the shorefast ice habitat, the home ranges of 27 adult males ranged from <1 to 13.9 km² (median = 0.628) while the home ranges of 28 adult females ranged from <1 to 27.9 km² (median = 0.652). The 3-dimensional volumes used by 9 seals tracked acoustically under the ice averaged 0.07 (SD = 0.04) km³ for subadults and adult males and 0.13 (SD = 0.04) km³ for adult females. Three of the radio-tracked seals and 9 tracked by satellite ranged up to 1,800 km from their winter/spring home ranges in summer but returned to the same small (1–2 km²) sites during the ice-bound months in the following year. The restricted movements of ringed seals during the ice-bound season—including the breeding season—limits their foraging activities for most of the year and may minimize gene flow within the species.     

Differential Range Use between Age Classes of Southern African Bearded Vultures Gypaetus barbatus

Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus movements were investigated in southern Africa to determine whether an individual''s age, sex or breeding status influenced its ranging behaviour and to provide the information required to guide conservation activities. Data from satellite transmitters fitted to 18 individuals of four age classes were used to determine range size and use. Because of the nature of the movements of marked individuals, these data could be used to determine the overall foraging range of the entire population, which was estimated to be 51 767 km². Although juvenile, immature and sub-adult birds used different parts of the overall range, their combined foraging range was 65% (33 636 km²) of the overall range. Average adult home ranges (286 km²) were only around 1% the size of the average foraging ranges of non-adults (10 540 –25 985 km²), with those of breeding adults being even smaller (95 km²). Home ranges of breeding adults did not vary in size between seasons but adults utilized their home range more intensively whilst breeding, moving greater distances during the incubation and chick hatching period. Range size and use increased as non-adults aged. Immatures and sub-adults had larger range sizes during winter, but range use of non-adults did not vary seasonally. Range size and use did not differ between the sexes in any of the age classes. Information on home range size and use enables specific areas within the species'' range to be targeted for management planning, education and conservation action.     

Calibrating a camera trap–based biased mark–recapture sampling design to survey the leopard population in the N'wanetsi concession,Kruger National Park,South Africa

Estimating large carnivore abundance can be challenging. A biased leopard (Panthera pardus) population survey was conducted in the N'wanetsi concession in the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa, using motion‐sensitive camera traps from April to August 2008. Survey effort included 88 trapping occasions and 586 trap days. The survey yielded 24 leopard photographs, comprising fourteen adults of eleven males and three females. The capture rate was determined to be 24.4 trap days per leopard. Estimates of population abundance stabilized at approximately 500 trap days. Precision of population estimates began to stabilize after 378 trap days. We estimated that there were nineteen leopards in an area of 150 km². Leopard density was estimated at 12.7 leopards per 100 km². We explore the possibility of employing the methods used in this study to survey the leopard population in the KNP and surrounding areas.     

Home range and movements of arctic foxes Alopex lagopus in Svalbard

Summary Movements and home ranges of arctic foxes Alopex lagopus were studied in two regions of Svalbard by means of radio tracking (n= 17), ear tagging (n= 192) and visual observations. The movements of radio collared foxes were highly variable, and most foxes roamed over wide areas at least during periods of the year. Home range size was estimated for 11 foxes when more stationary and for three other less stationary foxes, and were in the range 5–120km². During non-stationary periods several foxes roamed over areas 500–1000 km² or more. These movements may more correctly be classified as nomadic, and should not be termed home ranges. Only 3 of 12 radio collarec. foxes that disappeared from an area, returned later. Seven of the 17 foxes were relocated to the same area in more than one season. Overlap of home ranges was extensive, even more so when a number of non-tagged foxes in the regions were included. The heavier juveniles and adults were more sedentary than those of weight lower than median.     

Climatically driven changes in primary production propagate through trophic levels

Climate and land‐use change are the major drivers of global biodiversity loss. Their effects are particularly acute for wide‐ranging consumers, but little is known about how these factors interact to affect the abundance of large carnivores and their herbivore prey. We analyzed population densities of a primary and secondary consumer (mule deer, Odocoileus hemionus, and mountain lion, Puma concolor) across a climatic gradient in western North America by combining satellite‐based maps of plant productivity with estimates of animal abundance and foraging area derived from Global Positioning Systems telemetry data (GPS). Mule deer density exhibited a positive, linear relationship with plant productivity (r² = 0.58), varying by a factor of 18 across the climate‐vegetation gradient (range: 38–697 individuals/100 km²). Mountain lion home range size decreased in response to increasing primary productivity and consequent changes in the abundance of their herbivore prey (range: 20–450 km²). This pattern resulted in a strong, positive association between plant productivity and mountain lion density (r² = 0.67). Despite varying densities, the ratio of prey to predator remained constant across the climatic gradient (mean ± SE = 363 ± 29 mule deer/mountain lion), suggesting that the determinacy of the effect of primary productivity on consumer density was conserved across trophic levels. As droughts and longer term climate changes reduce the suitability of marginal habitats, consumer home ranges will expand in order for individuals to meet basic nutritional requirements. These changes portend decreases in the abundance of large‐bodied, wide‐ranging wildlife through climatically driven reductions in carrying capacity, as well as increased human–wildlife interactions stemming from anthropogenic land use and habitat fragmentation.     

Do Power Lines and Protected Areas Present a Catch-22 Situation for Cape Vultures (Gyps coprotheres)?

Cape vulture Gyps coprotheres populations have declined across their range due to multiple anthropogenic threats. Their susceptibility to fatal collisions with the expanding power line network and the prevalence of carcasses contaminated with illegal poisons and other threats outside protected areas are thought to be the primary drivers of declines in southern Africa. We used GPS-GSM units to track the movements and delineate the home ranges of five adult (mean ±SD minimum convex polygon area  =  121,655±90,845 km²) and four immature (mean ±SD minimum convex polygon area  =  492,300±259,427 km²) Cape vultures to investigate the influence of power lines and their use of protected areas. The vultures travelled more than 1,000 km from the capture site and collectively entered five different countries in southern Africa. Their movement patterns and core foraging ranges were closely associated with the spatial distribution of transmission power lines and we present evidence that the construction of power lines has allowed the species to extend its range to areas previously devoid of suitable perches. The distribution of locations of known Cape vulture mortalities caused by interactions with power lines corresponded to the core ranges of the tracked vultures. Although some of the vultures regularly roosted at breeding colonies located inside protected areas the majority of foraging activity took place on unprotected farmland. Their ability to travel vast distances very quickly and the high proportion of time they spend in the vicinity of power lines and outside protected areas make Cape vultures especially vulnerable to negative interactions with the expanding power line network and the full range of threats across the region. Co-ordinated cross-border conservation strategies beyond the protected area network will therefore be necessary to ensure the future survival of threatened vultures in Africa.     

Home range estimates for squaretail coralgrouper, Plectropomus areolatus (Rüppell 1830)

The aim of the study was to estimate home range areas and distance of movement away from a squaretail coralgrouper (Plectropomus areolatus) spawning aggregation site located within a small-scale 1.5 km² Marine Protected Area (MPA) in Pohnpei, Micronesia. Fifteen P. areolatus were acoustically tagged and re-located within a ca. 50 km² search area over a 4-month period that included reproductive and non-reproductive months. All relocated fish were found in areas of moderate to high coral cover either on the fore reef or inside the lagoon in home ranges of 0.048 ± 0.018 km² (μ ± S.E.). Variability in home range area (0.004–0.12 km²) and distance of movement from aggregation sites following spawning (0.02–23.0 km; 5.3 ± 3.6 km, μ ± S.E.) was observed, but did not appear to be sex specific. Five of the six relocated individuals were found within 0.02–6.1 km of the aggregation. This evidence and that from recent tag-recapture studies of epinephelids suggest that a substantial proportion of individual P. areolatus spawning populations reside within close proximity to their respective aggregation sites. Reproductive populations could be protected by MPAs of moderate scale (10 s of km²) that include aggregation sites, migratory corridors and adjacent home range habitats.     

Watershed nitrogen input and riverine export on the west coast of the US

This study evaluated the sources, sinks, and factors controlling net export of nitrogen (N) from watersheds on the west coast of the US. We calculated input of new N to 22 watersheds for 1992 and 2002. 1992 inputs ranged from 541 to 11,644 kg N km⁻² year⁻¹, with an overall area-weighted average of 1,870 kg N km⁻² year⁻¹. In 2002, the range of inputs was 490–10,875 kg N km⁻² year⁻¹, averaging 2,158 kg N km⁻² year⁻¹. Fertilizer was the most important source of new N, averaging 956 (1992) and 1,073 kg N km⁻² year⁻¹ (2002). Atmospheric deposition was the next most important input, averaging 833 (1992) and 717 kg N km⁻² year⁻¹ (2002), followed by biological N fixation in agricultural lands. Riverine N export, calculated based on measurements taken at the furthest downstream USGS water quality monitoring station, averaged 165 (1992) and 196 kg N km⁻² year⁻¹ (2002), although data were available for only 7 watersheds at the latter time point. Downstream riverine N export was correlated with variations in streamflow (export = 0.94 × streamflow − 5.65, R ² = 0.66), with N inputs explaining an additional 16% of the variance (export = 1.06 × streamflow + 0.06 × input − 227.78, R ² = 0.82). The percentage of N input that is exported averaged 12%. Percent export was also related to streamflow (%export = 0.05 × streamflow − 2.61, R ² = 0.60). The correlations with streamflow are likely a result of its large dynamic range in these systems. However, the processes that control watershed N export are not yet completely understood.     

Interactions between density,home range behaviors,and contact rates in the Channel Island fox (Urocyon littoralis)

Many of the mechanisms underlying density‐dependent regulation of populations, including contest competition and disease spread, depend on contact among neighboring animals. Understanding how variation in population density influences the frequency of contact among neighboring animals is therefore an important aspect to understanding the mechanisms underlying, and ecological consequences of, density‐dependent regulation. However, contact rates are difficult to measure in the field and may be influenced by density through multiple pathways. This study explored how local density affects contact rates among Channel Island foxes (Urocyon littoralis) through two pathways: changes in home range size and changes in home range overlap. We tracked 40 radio‐collared foxes at four sites on San Clemente Island, California. Fox densities at the four sites ranged from 2.8 ± 1.28 to 42.8 ± 9.43 foxes/km². Higher fox densities were correlated with smaller home ranges (R² = 0.526, F_1,38 = 42.19, P < 0.001). Thirty foxes wore collars that also contained proximity loggers, which recorded the time and duration of occasions when collared foxes were within 5 m of one another. Contact rates between neighboring fox dyads were positively correlated with home range overlap (R² = 0.341, P = 0.008), but not fox density (R² = 0.012, P = 0.976). Individuals at high densities had more collared neighbors with overlapping home ranges (R² = 0.123, P = 0.026) but not an increase in the amount of contact between individual neighbors. This study was the first time contact rates were directly measured and compared to density and home range overlap. Results suggest that foxes exhibit a threshold in their degree of tolerance for neighbors, overlap is a reliable index of the amount of direct contact between island foxes, and disease transmission rates will likely scale with fox density.     

Distribution and abundance of sei whales off the west coast of the Falkland Islands

Little information exists on the current status of Southern Hemisphere sei whales (Balaenoptera borealis). We assessed their distribution and abundance along the west coast of the Falkland Islands (southwest Atlantic) during February and March 2018, using line transect and nonsystematic surveys. Abundance estimates were generated for a single survey stratum using design- and model-based approaches. Sightings of sei whales and unidentified baleen whales (most, if not all, likely to be sei whales) occurred from the coast to the 100 m depth isobath that marked the offshore boundary of the stratum. The modeled distribution predicted highest whale densities in King George Bay and in the waters between Weddell Island and the Passage Islands. Sei whale abundance was estimated as 716 animals (CV = 0.22; 95% CI [448, 1,144]; density = 0.20 whales/km²) using the design-based approach, and 707 animals (CV = 0.11; 95% CI [566, 877]; density = 0.20 whales/km²) using the model-based approach. For sei whales and unidentified baleen whales combined, the equivalent estimates were 916 animals (CV = 0.19; 95% CI [606, 1,384]; density = 0.26 whales/km²) and 895 animals (CV = 0.074; 95% CI [777, 1,032]; density = 0.25 whales/km²). The data indicate that the Falkland Islands inner shelf region may support globally important seasonal feeding aggregations of sei whales, and potentially qualify as a Key Biodiversity Area.     

Targeted agri‐environment schemes significantly improve the population size of common farmland bumblebee species

Changes in agricultural practice across Europe and North America have been associated with range contractions and local extinction of bumblebees (Bombus spp.). A number of agri‐environment schemes have been implemented to halt and reverse these declines, predominantly revolving around the provision of additional forage plants. Although it has been demonstrated that these schemes can attract substantial numbers of foraging bumblebees, it remains unclear to what extent they actually increase bumblebee populations. We used standardized transect walks and molecular techniques to compare the size of bumblebee populations between Higher Level Stewardship (HLS) farms implementing pollinator‐friendly schemes and Entry Level Stewardship (ELS) control farms. Bumblebee abundance on the transect walks was significantly higher on HLS farms than ELS farms. Molecular analysis suggested maximum foraging ranges of 566 m for Bombus hortorum, 714 m for B. lapidarius, 363 m for B. pascuorum and 799 m for B. terrestris. Substantial differences in maximum foraging range were found within bumblebee species between farm types. Accounting for foraging range differences, B. hortorum (47 vs 13 nests/km²) and B. lapidarius (45 vs 22 nests/km²) were found to nest at significantly greater densities on HLS farms than ELS farms. There were no significant differences between farm type for B. terrestris (88 vs 38 nests/km²) and B. pascuorum (32 vs 39 nests/km²). Across all bumblebee species, HLS management had a significantly positive effect on bumblebee nest density. These results show that targeted agri‐environment schemes that increase the availability of suitable forage can significantly increase the size of wild bumblebee populations.     

Standardising Home Range Studies for Improved Management of the Critically Endangered Black Rhinoceros

Comparisons of recent estimations of home range sizes for the critically endangered black rhinoceros in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park (HiP), South Africa, with historical estimates led reports of a substantial (54%) increase, attributed to over-stocking and habitat deterioration that has far-reaching implications for rhino conservation. Other reports, however, suggest the increase is more likely an artefact caused by applying various home range estimators to non-standardised datasets. We collected 1939 locations of 25 black rhino over six years (2004–2009) to estimate annual home ranges and evaluate the hypothesis that they have increased in size. A minimum of 30 and 25 locations were required for accurate 95% MCP estimation of home range of adult rhinos, during the dry and wet seasons respectively. Forty and 55 locations were required for adult female and male annual MCP home ranges, respectively, and 30 locations were necessary for estimating 90% bivariate kernel home ranges accurately. Average annual 95% bivariate kernel home ranges were 20.4 ± 1.2 km², 53 ±1.9% larger than 95% MCP ranges (9.8 km² ± 0.9). When home range techniques used during the late-1960s in HiP were applied to our dataset, estimates were similar, indicating that ranges have not changed substantially in 50 years. Inaccurate, non-standardised, home range estimates and their comparison have the potential to mislead black rhino population management. We recommend that more care be taken to collect adequate numbers of rhino locations within standardized time periods (i.e., season or year) and that the comparison of home ranges estimated using dissimilar procedures be avoided. Home range studies of black rhino have been data deficient and procedurally inconsistent. Standardisation of methods is required.