Generalists are the most urban‐tolerant of birds: a phylogenetically controlled analysis of ecological and life history traits using a novel continuous measure of bird responses to urbanization

Identifying which ecological and life history traits influence a species’ tolerance to urbanization is critical to understanding the trajectory of biodiversity in an increasingly urbanizing world. There is evidence for a wide array of contrasting patterns for single trait associations with urbanization. In a continental‐scale analysis, incorporating 477 species and >5 000 000 bird observations, we developed a novel and scalable methodology that evaluated the ecological and life history traits which most influence a species’ adaptability to persist in urban environments. Specifically, we assigned species‐specific scores based on continuous measures of response to urbanization, using VIIRS night‐time light values (i.e. radiance) as a proxy for urbanization. We identified generalized, phylogenetically controlled patterns: bird species which are generalists (i.e. large niche breadth), with large clutch size, and large residual brain size are among the most urban‐tolerant bird species. Conversely, specialized feeding strategies (i.e. insectivores and granivores) were negatively associated with urbanization. Enhancement and persistence of avian biodiversity in urban environments probably relies on protecting, maintaining and restoring diverse habitats serving a range of life history strategies.     

Avian diversity and function across the world's most populous cities

Understanding the composition of urban wildlife communities is crucial to promote biodiversity, ecosystem function and links between nature and people. Using crowdsourced data from over five million eBird checklists, we examined the influence of urban characteristics on avian richness and function at 8443 sites within and across 137 global cities. Under half of the species from regional pools were recorded in cities, and we found a significant phylogenetic signal for urban tolerance. Site-level avian richness was positively influenced by the extent of open forest, cultivation and wetlands and avian functional diversity by wetlands. Functional diversity co-declined with richness, but groups including granivores and aquatic birds occurred even at species-poor sites. Cities in arid areas held a higher percentage of regional species richness. Our results indicate commonalities in the influence of habitat on richness and function, as well as lower niche availability, and phylogenetic diversity across the world's cities.     

The response of herpetofauna to urbanization: Inferring patterns of persistence from wildlife databases

Urbanization involves the conversion of natural habitats into human‐modified ecosystems and is known to reduce the diversity and abundance of indigenous plant and animal communities. Urbanization may lead to the extinction of indigenous species or facilitate the establishment of non‐indigenous communities in cities and towns. We analysed sighting records held in wildlife databases to infer the probability of persistence of reptiles and amphibians (‘herpetofauna’) within Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Throughout greater Melbourne, 81% (13) of the 16 frog species recorded had ≥95% probability of being extant in 2006, compared with 56% (22) of the 39 species of reptiles recorded. The number of frog species that had ≥95% probability of being extant in inner local government areas (LGAs) within 10 km of the centre of Melbourne was higher (86%) than in the outer LGAs (69%). Conversely, only 46% of reptile species had ≥95% probability of being extant in inner and outer LGAs. The proportion of reptile species with <50% probability of being extant in inner LGAs was higher than for frog species (25% and 7%, respectively), suggesting that reptiles have been negatively affected by urbanization to a much greater extent than frogs. Based on the probability of species being extant, frogs and reptiles exhibited variations in their response to urbanization between species that persisted (urban‐adapters) and species that did not (urban‐sensitive or urban‐avoiders). These differences in response were likely related to individual species' life‐history and their requirements for habitat, space and dispersal. To conserve herpetofauna in urban areas we need to maintain structural complexity in remnant habitat patches, and implement strategic policies and management actions that protect habitat remnants and habitat corridors.     

Birds rarely hybridize: A citizen science approach to estimating rates of hybridization in the wild*

The rate of hybridization among taxa is a central consideration in any discussion of speciation, but rates of hybridization are difficult to estimate in most wild populations of animals. We used a successful citizen science dataset, eBird, to estimate the rates of hybridization for wild birds in the United States. We calculated the frequency at which hybrid individuals belonging to different species, families, and orders of birds were observed. Between 1 January 2010 and 31 December 2018, a total of 334,770,194 species records were reported to eBird within the United States. Of this total, 212,875 or 0.064% were reported as hybrids. This estimate is higher than the rate of hybridization (0.00167%) reported by Mayr based on impressions from a career studying museum specimens. However, if the 10 most influential hybrid species are removed from the eBird dataset, the rate of hybridization decreases substantially to about 0.009%. We conclude that the rate of hybridization for individuals in most bird species is extremely low, even though the potential for birds to produce fertile offspring through hybrid crosses is high. These findings indicate that there is strong prezygotic selection working in most avian species.     

城市绿地微生物及其对城市化的响应

城市绿地微生物的稳定性是城市绿地发挥其重要生态系统功能的重要因素。人类世时代的快速城市化会改变城市绿地土壤理化性质、输入新兴污染物、加剧微生物生态系统潜在风险、改变微生物群落多样性及生态系统功能多样性,深远地影响了城市绿地的生态系统服务功能。本文综述了城市绿地微生物的特征,以及城市化进程对城市绿地微生物组(包括土壤、植物叶际和空气)、抗生素抗性基因、病原微生物和稀有物种群落的影响。与自然微生物相比,城市绿地微生物普遍具有较高的异质性,受人类活动影响大。同时,抗生素抗性基因水平以及人类致病菌数量则显著增加,体现了城市化对城市绿地生态系统健康和功能的扰动。今后研究中应更加关注城市化对于城市绿地微生物的影响,为其对人群健康影响风险评价提供可靠理论支持。     

北京市城市化进程中热环境响应

城市热岛效应是快速城市化过程带来最明显的生态环境问题之一,理清其形成和演变规律对城市规划、人居环境改善等具有重要意义。利用1991—2011年间8期夏季(6—8月)Landsat-5 TM遥感影像反演的地表温度空间场作为基础数据,通过定义热岛强度与热岛容量指数,并利用重心模型与Moran's I全局自相关等空间分析方法,对受城市化影响的典型区域——北京六环区域内热岛效应的时空动态变化特征及演变规律进行分析。结果表明:20年间六环内热岛强度总体上呈现增长趋势,其平均值在5.73—9.27℃之间,统计意义上,北京市六环内热岛强度的增长速率为1.35℃/10 a;空间格局上,南北维度的变化较东西维度明显,但总体上呈现破碎化态势,全局Moran's I指数从1991年的0.63下降到2011年的0.16;空间重心模型显示研究区内热环境变化的圈层特征明显,受功能疏解等因素的影响,城市中心二环区域的热环境呈现一定程度的好转。     

Integrating multiple data sources to assess the distribution and abundance of bottlenose dolphins Tursiops truncatus in Scottish waters

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早春草本植物开花物候期对城市化进程的响应——以北京市为例

植物物候对城市化的响应是全球变化与城市生态环境效应研究的重要内容。2012年3月到6月,结合气象观测数据,对北京市西北向城市化梯度上7种早春草本植物开花物候期进行观测与研究,发现温度因子和早春草本植物开花物候期均随城市化梯度发生变化,即越靠近城市中心区,温度和积温累计值越高;早春草本植物开花物候期出现时间越早,平均提前2—4 d;但开花期持续时间与开花速率并不随城市化梯度发生明显变化。此外,研究发现北京市7种早春草本植物开花期对5℃积温变化响应最为敏感;开花期提前时间梯度变化显著性与生活型密切关联,多年生草本植物对城市化梯度变化的响应比一年生或一二年生草本植物明显。未来城市植物物候期研究中,应更关注城市化进程中土地利用/覆被变化与热岛效应对城市气候及植物生理生态特征的累积影响特征,以期进一步揭示植物物候期对城市化及气候变化的响应规律。     

Noise pollution and decreased size of wooded areas reduces the probability of occurrence of Tawny Owl Strix aluco

At present, urban areas cover almost 3% of the Earth's land surface, and this proportion is constantly increasing along with human population growth. Although urbanization leads to biodiversity decline, at the same time it creates a novel and extensive environment that is exploited by whole assemblages of organisms. These include predators, which use the matrix of different habitat types within the urban environment for breeding and/or foraging. This study investigated how attributes of the urban landscape influence the distribution pattern of a nocturnal acoustic predator, the Tawny Owl Strix aluco. The probability of occurrence of this species was correlated with the presence of natural forests, and the increasing size of wooded habitat patches within the urban landscape; however, Tawny Owls were less likely to occur at sites with high noise levels at night. Our study suggests that the distribution pattern of acoustic predators is shaped by the availability of primary habitat but reduced by noise intensity (which may decrease hunting efficiency). The Tawny Owl is a top predator in the urban environment and its presence/absence may therefore affect populations of other species; this provides clear evidence of the indirect effect of noise pollution on animal populations inhabiting urban environments.     

Response of vegetation phenology to urbanization in the conterminous United States

The influence of urbanization on vegetation phenology is gaining considerable attention due to its implications for human health, cycling of carbon and other nutrients in Earth system. In this study, we examined the relationship between change in vegetation phenology and urban size, an indicator of urbanization, for the conterminous United States. We studied more than 4500 urban clusters of varying size to determine the impact of urbanization on plant phenology, with the aids of remotely sensed observations since 2003–2012. We found that phenology cycle (changes in vegetation greenness) in urban areas starts earlier (start of season, SOS) and ends later (end of season, EOS), resulting in a longer growing season length (GSL), when compared to the respective surrounding urban areas. The average difference of GSL between urban and rural areas over all vegetation types, considered in this study, is about 9 days. Also, the extended GSL in urban area is consistent among different climate zones in the United States, whereas their magnitudes are varying across regions. We found that a tenfold increase in urban size could result in an earlier SOS of about 1.3 days and a later EOS of around 2.4 days. As a result, the GSL could be extended by approximately 3.6 days with a range of 1.6–6.5 days for 25th ~ 75th quantiles, with a median value of about 2.1 days. For different vegetation types, the phenology response to urbanization, as defined by GSL, ranges from 1 to 4 days. The quantitative relationship between phenology and urbanization is of great use for developing improved models of vegetation phenology dynamics under future urbanization, and for developing change indicators to assess the impacts of urbanization on vegetation phenology.     

城市化鸟类群落变化及其与城市植被的关系

持续而快速的城市化进程正在助长全球生物多样性的丧失,其中鸟类是城市生态系统的重要环节和城市生物多样性保护的重点目标,同时也是研究的热点内容。从城市环境变化压力下,鸟类群落组成与结构、空间分布和繁殖营巢方式的改变分析,重点介绍了支持城市地区鸟类多样性的植物环境因素与影响机制的最新研究成果。结果表明：1）城市中的植被和绿色空间为城市鸟类提供生存空间和食物资源,是城市鸟类最主要的栖息地。2）保留原生乡土植物和大型树木的地区能支持更丰富的鸟类物种。3）植被的结构和盖度对鸟类群落有显著影响。林冠覆盖率增加,复杂的垂直空间和多样的植物种类的组合产生各种不同类型的植物空间和栖息地类型,吸引不同的鸟类物种,相应地也会导致更丰富的鸟类群落。总之,保持和加强城市中植物环境良好和稳定是保护城市生物多样性的有效手段。据此,提出城市环境与鸟类群落关系研究的未来发展方向,指出了其在鸟类多样性保护和城市可持续发展等领域的应用前景。     

House Wrens Troglodytes aedon reduce repertoire size and change song element frequencies in response to anthropogenic noise

Anthropogenic noise (≤ 3 kHz) can affect key features of birds’ acoustic communication via two different processes: (1) song‐learning, because songbirds need to hear themselves and other birds to crystallize their song, and (2) avoidance of song elements that overlap with anthropogenic noise. In this study we tested whether anthropogenic noise reduces the number of song elements in the repertoire of House Wren Troglodytes aedon, an urban species. Additionally, we tested whether the proportion of high‐frequency elements (i.e. elements where the minimum frequency is above 3 kHz) is related to anthropogenic noise levels, and how the frequencies and duration of shared elements between males change with different levels of anthropogenic noise. We recorded 29 House Wren males exposed to different anthropogenic noise levels (36.50–79.50 dB) during two consecutive breeding seasons from four locations. We recorded each male on 2 days during each season continuously for 50 min (we collected 104 h of recordings) and measured anthropogenic noise levels every 10 min inside each male territory during the recording period. In general, individuals inhabiting noisier territories had smaller repertoires. However, only in two locations with anthropogenic noise levels between 38.60 and 79.50 dB did males inhabiting noisier territories have smaller repertoires. In the other two locations with lower anthropogenic noise (36.50–66.50 dB), the anthropogenic noise inside each territory was not related to the repertoire size. Individuals inhabiting the noisiest location showed a tendency to include more high‐frequency elements in their songs. In 26% of the elements, the anthropogenic noise affected their frequency features. Our results showed that not all House Wrens inhabiting urban environments modify their songs at the highest level of organization (i.e. repertoire) to reduce the masking effect of anthropogenic noise on acoustic communication.     

京津冀城市群城市化与生态环境时空分异及协同发展格局

京津冀城市群在快速城市化进程中,"高耗能、高污染、高排放"的粗放型经济发展模式引发了一系列诸如雾霾、水质污染及生态体系破坏等问题。选取2000—2015年京津冀城市群13个地级以上城市作为研究对象,采用系统指数评估模型评价城市化与生态环境系统及其子系统指数值,运用耦合协调度模型及其分类原则判定两者协同发展格局。结果表明:(1)北京、天津、唐山、石家庄、廊坊城市化发展较强,邯郸、秦皇岛、衡水、沧州居中,邢台、保定、张家口、承德较弱;北京、保定、张家口、承德和秦皇岛生态环境保护较好,天津、石家庄、廊坊、邯郸、沧州居中,邢台、衡水、唐山较弱。(2)2000—2007年为城市化缓慢发展阶段,2008—2015年为稳步提升阶段;2000—2010年为生态保护攻坚期,2011—2015年为生态文明建设期,环保投入剧增。(3)高城市化区的空间格局保持不变,偏高城市化区和中城市化区空间格局相对稳定,低城市化区基本不存在;优生态环境区、偏优生态环境区和中生态环境区空间格局相对稳定,劣生态环境保护区不存在。(4)京津冀城市群城市化与生态环境系统耦合协调度上升趋势显著,但是濒临失调和中度协调占主导类型,具有较大上升空间;协同发展类型整体上逐渐由城市化滞后演变为生态环境滞后,生态环境质量需要进一步提高。由此,需要以生态环境保护为抓手,坚持产业转型升级和"高科技+"的自主优化思想,打造集聚区域特色的"美丽中国"绿色城市化样板区;加大地区生态环境保护的投入和宣传,以"生态+"思想融入经济社会发展,培育区域性绿色小城镇;建立多样化生态保护园区、现代化旅游和康养基地、科技化教育培训机构,促进区域内外多维多向联动发展;保有生态环境危机意识,积极创建保障措施,杜绝重大生态破坏、环境污染等事件。